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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.52, #2)
Distribution of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Soil and Grasses Around Mt. Qomolangma, China by X.-P. Wang; T.-D. Yao; Z.-Y. Cong; X.-L. Yan; S.-C. Kang; Y. Zhang (pp. 153-162).
Previous literature has reported the fate of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in mountainous regions, but the Himalayas have received little attention, and few results from this region have been published. The present study collected soil and grass samples from the Mt. Qomolangma (Everest) area, central Himalayas, China, from the elevation range 4700 to 5620 m. We analyzed all samples for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) to determine the level of OCP contamination in the Qomolangma region. The soil samples contained 0.385 to 6.06 ng g–1 of DDT only, and these concentrations were lower than those from Europe and mountains close to industrial emissions. Our study detected a number of OCPs in the grass samples, such as hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) (0.354 to 7.82 ng g–1), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (0.0156 to 1.25 ng g–1), endosulfan (0.105 to 3.14 ng g–1), and DDT components (1.08 to 6.99 ng g–1). Their concentrations were higher than those in pine needles from Alberta, Canada. Our measurements of HCH and DDT in grass samples showed the same or slightly higher concentration levels than reported in moss from Mt. Qomolangma 15 years ago. This result and the analysis of isomer ratios (α/γ-HCH and p-p’-DDE/p-p’-DDT) indicate recent releases of OCPs from a nearby region, possibly from dicofol use in India. We also investigated the elevation distribution of OCPs and found that HCH and HCB were progressively concentrated in colder, higher elevation sites. A bioconcentration factor (BCF) of grass was calculated, and the BCF values increased with the increasing elevation, indicating that the cold condensation of POPs at high-elevation sites may increase the potential threat to vegetation and the food chain in the mountain ecosystem.
Effects of Pharmaceuticals on Aquatic Invertebrates. Part II: The Antidepressant Drug Fluoxetine by Gerrit Nentwig (pp. 163-170).
Fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant and high-prescription-volume drug, is excreted unchanged or as a glucuronide from the human organism. Little is known about its fate in sewage treatment plants. Effects of fluoxetine on life-cycle parameters of the midge Chironomus riparius, especially development (mean emergence time), emergence, sex ratio, and fecundity, were assessed, as well as effects on reproduction of the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus and of the freshwater mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum. Due to the moderate lipophilic properties of the compound with a log P OW of 4.05, C. riparius and L. variegatus were exposed to fluoxetine via spiked artificial sediment at a nominal concentration range between 0.15 and 5.86 mg/kg (dry weight). Additionally, a test was performed exposing P. antipodarum via water in a nominal concentration range between 0.64 and 400 μg/L. As endpoints, emergence rate and timing, sex ratio, clutch numbers and clutch size of the midges, the number of worms in the oligochaete test, as well as the number of embryos in the snail test were monitored. For C. riparius, no clear substance-related effects were observed; for L. variegatus, the results indicated a slight increase in reproduction, which was statistically significant at nominal fluoxetine concentrations of 0.94 and 2.34 mg/kg. In P. antipodarum, the antidepressant reduced reproduction significantly. No observed effect concentration (NOEC) and 10% effect concentration (EC10) were determined to be 0.47 and 0.81 μg/L, respectively, based on measured fluoxetine concentrations in water. These low values indicate that P. antipodarum and possibly other aquatic mollusks are sensitive to fluoxetine and that the drug might pose a risk to gastropod populations in the field.
Toxicity of Heavy Metals on Embryogenesis and Larvae of the Marine Sedentary Polychaete Hydroides elegans by S. Gopalakrishnan; H. Thilagam; P. V. Raja (pp. 171-178).
The toxicity of heavy metals to marine invertebrates has been widely investigated; however, the effects on marine sedentary polychaetes have largely been ignored. The toxicity of copper, aluminium, lead, nickel, and zinc on fertilization, embryogenesis, and larvae of Hydroides elegans was examined in laboratory acute-toxicity tests. Exposure to metal during fertilization or early developmental stages leads to fertilization block and arrested development, which resulted in morphologic abnormalities in embryo and larvae. Fertilization rate showed a drastic decrease at the highest metal concentration tested. Embryos of H. elegans showed a differential response to metals, and the responses were stage-specific. The different morphologic effects of heavy metals reflect differentiation of the early embryonic cells. For individual metals, the toxicity ranking for 24−hour trochophore larvae was Cu > Al > Pb > Ni > Zn, with EC50 values of 0.122, 0.210, 0.231, 0.316, and 0.391 mg l−1, respectively. Rate of larval development and embryogenesis were the most sensitive end points, although the latter is more advisable for routine assessment of seawater quality because of its greater simplicity. In addition to bivalves and sea urchins, polychaete embryos can provide biologic criteria for seawater quality taking into account the sensitivity of a polychaete and contributing to the detection of harmful chemicals with no marked effect on the species currently in use in seawater quality bioassays.
Concentrations of Antifouling Biocides in Sediment and Mussel Samples Collected from Otsuchi Bay, Japan by Hiroya Harino; Yoshikazu Yamamoto; Sayaka Eguchi; Shini’chiro Kawai; Yuko Kurokawa; Takaomi Arai; Madoka Ohji; Hideo Okamura; Nobuyuki Miyazaki (pp. 179-188).
Organotin compounds (OTs) and representative booster biocides were measured in sediment and mussels from Otsuchi Bay, Japan. The mean amounts of tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) compounds in sediment were 13 μg kg−1 dry and 3 μg kg−1 dry, respectively. Representative booster biocides (Sea-Nine 211, Diuron, Dichlofluanid, Irgarol 1501, M1, which is a degradation compound of Irgarol 1051, and Copper pyrithione) were also detected in sediment from Otsuchi Bay. OT concentrations were higher than those of the measured booster biocides. Otsuchi Bay was divided into four parts by cluster analysis based on OT concentrations in sediment sampled from the bay. These areas included the vicinity of a shipyard, a small fishing port, the closed inner area of the bay, and the mouth of the bay. Higher concentrations of TBT and TPT and a higher ratio of TBT to total BTs were observed in the vicinity of the shipyard. A higher concentration of TPT in comparison with TBT was detected in a small fishing port. Furthermore, OT concentrations in the mouth of the bay were higher than those in the closed-off section. OT concentrations in mussels decreased with distance from the shipyard. Otsuchi Bay was then divided into three parts by cluster analysis based on the concentrations of representative booster biocides found in the bay’s sediment. These areas included the vicinity of a shipyard, a small fishing port, and other sites. Concentrations of Diuron and Irgarol 1051 in the vicinity of a shipyard and a small fishing port were dramatically high in comparison with the other sites. Copper pyrithione and Dichlofluanid in addition to Diuron and Irgarol 1051 were also detected in the area of a small fishing port. The concentrations of antifouling biocides were highest in the water in front of the shipyard and showed a marked decrease with distance from the shipyard.
Involvement of Metallothionein in Zn Accumulation and Elimination Strategies in Ruditapes decussatus by A. Serafim; M. J. Bebianno (pp. 189-199).
The aim of this study was to identify the involvement of metallothionein (MT) in Zn accumulation and elimination strategies in different tissues (gills, digestive gland, and remaining tissues) of Ruditapes decussatus. Clams were exposed to two Zn concentrations (100 and 1000 μg/L) for 40 days, followed by a depuration period of 50 days. The accumulation and elimination processes were complemented by subcellular Zn distribution, to determine the affinity of this element for the different cellular partitions. Subsequently, the involvement of MT was followed. Zinc concentrations in the tissues of R. decussatus exposed to 100 μg/L was partially regulated, whereas in those exposed to 1000 μg/L, Zn was accumulated (exponentially and linearly) throughout the exposure period. The greatest amount of Zn is associated to the insoluble fraction; however, in the highest Zn exposure, ∼30% is in the thermostable fraction, where MT occurs. Gel filtration chromatography confirmed that the Zn ions accumulated in this fraction were bound to MT. This protein is actively involved in the elimination of this metal, through the rapid degradation of the Zn–MT complex because MT and Zn are turning over simultaneously. Therefore, MT participates in Zn homeostasis in R. decussatus when Zn exposure is low. When Zn accumulation increases, the role of this protein changes from a constitutive function to the detoxification of the excess of Zn ions.
Assessment of In Vivo Effects of the Prestige Fuel Oil Spill on the Mediterranean Mussel Immune System by M. C. Ordás; J. Albaigés; J. M. Bayona; A. Ordás; A. Figueras (pp. 200-206).
A laboratory experiment was carried out to study immune function alteration of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis when exposed to the Prestige oil spilled in November 2002 on the northwestern Spanish coast. Mussels were maintained for 4 months in tanks with flowing seawater and with 1, 2, and 0 kg (controls) Prestige fuel oil. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations, which were determined in gills and digestive glands, were higher in digestive glands. The methylphenantrene and dibenzothiophene profiles confirmed the real exposure of mussels to the fuel oil. Immune data analysis revealed that no differences between fuel-treated and control animals were found in the cellular immune parameters measured (hemocyte viability, phagocytic activity, nitric oxide production, and chemiluminescence emission). In addition, histologic observations did not reveal tissue lesions in any of the samples, probably because of the short time of fuel-oil exposure. In contrast, significant differences were found in serum protein concentration and lysozyme activity between the fuel-treated mussels and controls. However, these humoral immune parameters were dependant on numerous environmental and physiologic factors, so it was difficult to ascertain the real effect of the fuel oil on their variability. Because hemocytes are the primary line of defense of bivalve mollusks, the results obtained in the present study suggest that the mussel immune system was not significantly affected by exposure to the Prestige fuel oil.
Acute Toxicity and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition in Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) and Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) Exposed to the Organophosphate Dichlorvos: Laboratory and Field Studies by Majbritt Bolton-Warberg; Loren D. Coen; John E. Weinstein (pp. 207-216).
The use of various organophosphates to control mosquito populations is a common practice across the globe. We review the literature (LC50s) on dichlorvos, the primary breakdown product of Dibrom®, and use laboratory and field experiments to determine the lethal and sublethal (bioassays) effects of dichlorvos on two widely distributed and ecologically important estuarine invertebrate species, the marsh grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio and the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Laboratory results based on LC50s and sublethal acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition activity bioassays indicate that adult grass shrimp are more sensitive (∼ 500 × ) to dichlorvos than juvenile oysters. Although potentially an important factor for intertidal or shallow-dwelling estuarine organisms, the toxicity of dichlorvos was not enhanced in the presence of simulated sunlight for adult P. pugio. The most notable decreases in AChE activity were for grass shrimp and oysters exposed to dichlorvos concentrations above those considered ecologically relevant. In field experiments, both species were deployed in cages in unsprayed (n = 2) and sprayed (n = 3) sites and water samples collected pre- and post-spraying. Quantifiable dichlorvos levels were measured at the two narrowest creek treatment sites following mosquito spraying, suggesting that overspray can occur and there was evidence of a sublethal AChE response at these same sites. However, experiments at the widest creek revealed no measurable dichlorvos or sublethal responses. Results from this research suggest that adult grass shrimp are more sensitive to dichlorvos than juvenile oysters. Spraying near small tidal creeks may have measurable impacts on resident species, while larger (wider) creeks appear to be capable of buffering organisms from transient fluxes of mosquito control agents that may enter the system.
Toxicity of Three Polyethoxylated Tallowamine Surfactant Formulations to Laboratory and Field Collected Fairy Shrimp, Thamnocephalus platyurus by John M. Brausch; Philip N. Smith (pp. 217-221).
Polyethoxylated tallowamine (POEA) is a non-ionic surfactant used in herbicide formulations to increase the efficacy of active ingredients. POEA promotes penetration of herbicide active ingredients into plant cuticles, and in animal species is known to cause alterations in respiratory surfaces. POEA use has increased recently with the advent of “Roundup-Ready” crops; however, its potential effects on aquatic invertebrates are relatively unknown. The aquatic macroinvertebrate Thamnocephalus platyurus (Crustacea, Anostraca) was used to assess the acute toxicity of POEA. Three formulations of POEA consisting of a 5:1, 10:1, and 15:1 average oxide:tallowamine were used in this study. All POEA formulations were found to be extremely toxic to T. platyurus with 48-h LC50 concentrations as low as 2.01 μg/L for 15:1. POEA toxicity increased as the tallowamine chain length was reduced, whereas the oxide chain length appeared to only slightly increase toxicity. Based on these results, POEA has the potential to adversely affect aquatic organisms in areas in which it is used.
Effect of Waterborne Copper on the Microstructures of Gill and Hepatopancreas in Eriocheir sinensis and Its Induction of Metallothionein Synthesis by Zhi-Biao Yang; Yun-Long Zhao; Na Li; Jian Yang (pp. 222-228).
Effects of different waterborne copper concentrations (0.00, 0.01, 0.10, 1.00, and 5.00 mg/l) on microstructures of gill and hepatopancreas, and in inducing metallothionein (MT) synthesis were studied in Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinennsis. The results indicated that copper accumulation caused histologic damage to gill and hepatopancreas and induced MT synthesis in hepatopancreas. No significant differences were found in microstructures between 0.01 mg/l copper treatment and the control group. Exposure to copper concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 5.0 mg/l for 10 days resulted in irregularly thickened lamella, enlarged haemocoels, increased hemocytes, and damaged or disassembled epithelia in gill. Similarly, in hepatopancreas, the spaces of the small blind tubules decreased, and nuclei of the epithelia were karyopycnosised or karyorhexised. Also, the basement membranes were rumpled or even ruptured, with new vacuoles formed between the basement membrane and the simple columnar epithelia. MT measurements showed no significant differences in MT contents between the control group and the group treated with 0.01 mg/l waterborne copper. Maximum MT content was observed at the treatment level of 0.10 mg/l waterborne copper.
Effects of Ca2+ or Na+ on Metallothionein Expression in Tilapia Larvae (Oreochromis mossambicus) Exposed to Cadmium or Copper by S. M. Wu; Y.-C. Ho; M. J. Shih (pp. 229-234).
The objectives of this study were to try to determine the reasons of the external Ca2+ and Na+ enhancement of Cd2+ and Cu2+ resistance in fish. Tilapia larvae at 3 days posthatch were exposed to (A) 0 (control), 40 μg/L Cd2+, 40 μg/L Cd2+ + 2 mM Ca2+ (Cd/hyper-Ca), and 2 mM Ca2+ or (B) 0 (control), 75 μg/L Cu2+, 75 μg/L Cu2+ + 0.52 mM Na+ (Cu/hyper-Na), and 0.52 mM Na+. After 48 hours, results indicated that (1) Cd/hyper-Ca and Cu/hyper-Na treatments showed decreased growth inhibition induced by the metals; (2) metal accumulation in Cd/hyper-Ca–treated larvae was lower compared with those exposed only to Cd; and (3) metallothionein (MT) expression was significantly higher in Cu/hyper-Na–treated larvae than in the group treated with Cu only. Taking all of this into account, either supplementary Ca2+ or Na+ in ambient water may help fish to maintain Ca2+ or Na+ homeostasis, which could decrease metal accumulation and its detrimental effects. Consequently, the fish increase MT expression and retard the growth inhibition caused by metals.
Studies of Uptake, Elimination, and Late Effects in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Dietary Exposed to Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) During Early Life by A. Norman; H. Börjeson; F. David; B. Tienpont; L. Norrgren (pp. 235-242).
The phthalate esters are a group of industrial chemicals considered to have endocrine-disrupting properties. The most common tonnage product among these, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), is widely spread in the environment. The objectives with the present work were to study uptake and metabolism of orally administered DEHP and its major metabolite mono-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (MEHP) and to evaluate the impact of early life exposure on sex differentiation in Atlantic salmon. The feeding with contaminated diet started immediately after yolk sac resorption and continued for 4 weeks. Nominal concentrations of DEHP in the diet were 400 (measured 359), 800 (measured 827), and 1500 (measured 1648) mg DEHP/kg and a control group was fed food mixed with solvent. After the exposure period, fish were fed non-contaminated diet until final sampling 4 months post-exposure. There were no effects on growth or survival of the fish and no late effects on hepatosomatic index or sex ratio. However, the histological examination of gonads from fish exposed to 1500 mg DEHP/kg revealed a small but significant incidence (3%) of intersex fish (ovo-testis). Chemical residues of DEHP and MEHP were analyzed weekly during the first 3 months of the post-exposure period. Both DEHP and MEHP were rapidly eliminated to near background levels within one week post exposure. The study indicates that exposure of Atlantic salmon to relatively high concentrations of DEHP during a sensitive part of the life cycle may interfere with gonad differentiation.
Parasites of Winter Flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) as an Additional Bioindicator of Stress-Related Exposure to Untreated Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent: A 5-Year Field Study by R. A. Khan; S. M. Billiard (pp. 243-250).
A study was conducted in a marine inlet to assess the effects of untreated discharges from a pulp and paper mill, a municipality, and industries in western Newfoundland on winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus), a fish species shown previously to be sensitive to environmental contaminants in sediment. The fish were captured by SCUBA divers about 2 km down-current from the mill discharging effluent containing resin acids, and at three reference sites 2 to 11 km away near the opposite shore, each spring in five consecutive years and the fish were necropsied on site. A total of 360 and 339 flounder were examined near the mill and references sites, respectively. Several bioindicators were used to assess fish health including parasites. More fish exhibiting external and microscopic lesions in several tissues, lower condition factors, elevated hepatosomatic index, and delayed reproductive development were observed in samples taken near the paper mill than at the reference sites. A higher prevalence of an ectoparasite, Cryptocotyle lingua, but a significantly lower mean abundance of three metazoans infecting the digestive tract was noted in fish near the mill than in the reference samples. These results, comprising abnormal fish size distribution, low body condition factor, external and internal lesions, enlarged liver, delayed gonadal development, and changes in parasitism, were stress-related, indicative of impaired health, and associated primarily with untreated discharges from the pulp and paper mill. This integrated and multidisciplinary study also provides further evidence on the use of fish parasites as a valid and an additional bioindicator in programs monitoring environmental contaminants.
Effect of Malathion on Survival, Growth, and Food Consumption of Indian Cricket Frog (Limnonectus limnocharis) Tadpoles by H. P. Gurushankara; S. V. Krishnamurthy; V. Vasudev (pp. 251-256).
The effects of short-term exposure (28 days) of free-feeding Limnonectus limnocharis (Indian cricket frog) tadpoles to field concentrations of malathion were investigated. This frog species is a major biotic component of the agroecosystems of the Western Ghats (13°18′, 75°25′ and 13°22′, 75°28′), where malathion (diethyl [(dimethoxy phosphino thioyl] butanediote), an organophosphate pesticide, is being used extensively. Although malathion is known to cause nonreversible acetylcholine inhibition and diminishes activity, growth and development in amphibian tadpoles, such data on Indian amphibian species are lacking. In the present study, increments in the following were used to assess such an impact: tadpole growth; increase in total length, body length, tail length, and body weight; and food consumption. The different concentrations of malathion employed were 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, and 3000 μg L–1. Malathion exposure produced significant effects on all measured parameters. Tadpole survival decreased from 20 to 6 tadpoles, with an increase in concentration followed by a decrease in growth. Food consumption of surviving tadpoles also decreased (0.067 mg.g–1.d–1 to 0.0075 mg.g–1.d–1) with increased malathion. Decreased food consumption, growth, and development of L. limnocharis tadpoles with an increase of malathion concentration (within field concentration range) over temporal scale reveal the possible threat to this species in the agroecosystems of the Western Ghats.
PCB Congener Profiles in Nestling Tree Swallows and Their Insect Prey by Zsuzsanna Papp; Gary R. Bortolotti; Mary Sebastian; Judit E. G. Smits (pp. 257-263).
Tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) are widely used as indicators of local polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination in North America. Although determining total PCB residues in tissues is useful in environmental monitoring, analysis of PCB congener profiles may reveal sources of contamination and thus prove to be a more refined tool to track contaminants through the food web. To show how differences in PCB congener patterns in birds can be linked to the PCB patterns in their prey, we evaluated PCB congeners in tissues of tree swallow nestlings and their insect prey using principal component analysis and Euclidean similarities. The PC1 scores for PCB residues in nestlings fell between those of the Hexagenia (Ephemeroptera, mayflies) and Chironomidae (Diptera, midges), the two major prey groups of the nestlings. The congener pattern was not related to the location of nest boxes within the study area. However, Hexagenia insects and the nestlings that consumed them were richer in less chlorinated congeners and had higher PC1 scores than Chironomidae insect. In concordance, congener pattern of nestlings that hatched earlier and consumed more mayflies was more similar than that of other nestling to the pattern of nestings texagenia as calculated by Euclidean similarities. We point to the importance of understanding the seasonal availability of specific types of insect prey and their PCB congener pattern before these data are applied in models of trophic transfer of individual PCB congeners within a food web.
Effects of Dietary PCB Exposure on Reproduction in the White-Footed Mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) by M. B. Voltura; J. B. French Jr (pp. 264-269).
Studies of the impact of environmental contaminants on reproduction have typically focused on effects on fertility and subsequent reproductive failure. Contaminants may also impact reproductive output or other aspects of life history through effects on resource acquisition or allocation. We fed successfully breeding female white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) diets containing polychlorinated biphenyls (2:1 Aroclor 1242:1254) at levels of 0 (n = 10), 10 (n = 12), and 25 (n = 10) ppm (mg polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs]/kg food). After 4 months on the diets, female mice were bred with male mice maintained on control food. There was no effect of PCB exposure on litter size at birth or weaning, although fewer female mice on the 25-ppm diet gave birth. There was no effect of PCB dose on maternal metabolic rate at peak lactation or on total food (dry matter) intake during lactation. Female mice on the 10-ppm diet, however, consumed more food per pup during lactation and weaned larger pups, although these differences disappeared after 4 weeks of age. We conclude that although moderate-term exposure to PCBs did decrease the number of litters produced for high-dose female mice, it did not change litter size, pup growth rate, or energetic measures for those female mice that did successfully reproduce.
Animal Health Problems Attributed to Environmental Contamination in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya: A Case Study on Heavy Metal Poisoning in the Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa (Ruppel 1835) by I. O. Jumba; S. M. Kisia; R. Kock (pp. 270-281).
A study was conducted in which samples of soil, forage, as well as serum, bone, kidney, and liver of waterbuck were collected from Lake Nakuru National Park. The objective was to determine the ecosystem health status in order to establish the causes of animal health problems previously recorded in some sections of the Park. Trace element analysis in serum indicated occurrence of copper (Cu) deficiency in the north and eastern sections of the Park where mean values were marginal (range: 0.36–0.81, mean: 0.62 mg/l) compared to concentrations recorded in the western part of the Park (range: 0.69–1.48, mean: 1.22 mg/l). Bone analysis on dry matter basis (DM) indicated higher (p < 0.01) levels of cadmium (Cd, 0.437 mg/kg), fluoride (F, 3178 mg/kg), and lead (Pb, 20.62 mg/kg) in animals from the east compared to those from the west (0.002, 1492, 4.87 mg/kg, respectively), suggesting heavy exposure. In addition, samples from the east had much lower than normal calcium (Ca)-to-phosphorus (P) ratios (mean: 1.9:1) compared to those recorded in the west (2.2:1), suggesting poor bone mineralization. There was a higher concentration of Cd in the kidney (16.24 mg/kg, p < 0.05) and Pb in the liver (58.3 mg/kg, p < 0.01) in animals from the east compared to those in the west (12.92 and 36.2 mg/kg, respectively), but the converse was true of Cu. The liver Cu status was better in animals from the west with, concentrations (mean: 21.7 mg/kg) being about twice those recorded in the east (11.9 mg/kg DM). Forage analysis revealed prospects of Ca, P, and Cu deficiencies in the entire Park. However, in the northeastern section of the Park (measuring 50 ha) where waterbuck residence times are high, forage concentrations of Cd (0.31 mg/kg DM), molybdenum (Mo, 7.20 mg/kg DM), Pb (2.88 mg/kg DM), and zinc (Zn, 126 mg/kg DM) were an order of magnitude greater (p < 0.01) than the levels recorded in the rest of the Park (ranges: 0.133–0.165, 3.69–5.61, 0.485–0.621, 11.6–17.4 mg/kg DM, respectively). These disparities were attributed to a higher soil concentration of Cd (2.77 mg/kg DM), Pb (85.1 mg/k DM) and Zn (1414 mg/kg DM) in this section compared to the rest of the Park (ranges: 0.10–0.15, 5.02–6.26, 1.49–5.44 mg/kg DM, respectively), and strongly suggest heavy metal contamination as the source of animal health problems in the Park.