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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.44, #4)

Sticky Windows: Chemical and Biological Characteristics of the Organic Film Derived from Particulate and Gas-Phase Air Contaminants Found on an Urban Impervious Surface by E. M. Hodge; M. L. Diamond; B. E. McCarry; G. A. Stern; P. A. Harper (pp. 0421-0429).

A novel environmentally derived mixture that integrates exposure to atmospherically derived gas- and particle-phase compounds in urban areas—namely, the organic film that develops as a thin layer on urban impervious surfaces—was investigated for its ability to induce gene expression via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The organic film on window glass from 21 sites in downtown Toronto (Ontario, Canada) was found to contain a complex mixture of environmental contaminants typical of urban environments, notably PAHs, n-alkanes, PCBs, organochlorine (OC) pesticides, and polar constituents. Using a stably transfected reporter cell line, we found that the crude extract of organic film induces AhR-dependent gene expression in a dose-dependent fashion. Three subfractions of the crude extract induced significant luciferase expression: nonpolar aromatic > polar aromatic > nonpolar aliphatic. Recombination of the fractions did not lead to recovery of the full activity of the crude extract, which may indicate that some of the compounds lost during fractionation were significant contributors to the induction observed with the crude extract. The interactions between a tonic dose of B[a]P (10⁻⁷ M) and each of the aromatic fractions were determined to be antagonistic following analysis by the method of isoboles. Our results suggest that organic film makes up a diverse array of compounds active at the AhR and that these compounds may not interact in a strictly additive manner.

A First Look at Platinum in Road-Deposited Sediments and Roadside Soils, Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii by R. A. Sutherland (pp. 0430-0436).

AbstractPlatinum (Pt) has become globally distributed by anthropogenic inputs, primarily from automobile emissions resulting from degradation of catalytic converters. These inputs are greatest in urban areas, with the major sinks being road sediments and roadside soils. Limited data are available on the distribution of Pt in the environment. No data for Pt in road-deposited sediments are presently available from the United States, and only a few studies offer a limited perspective of Pt in urban soils in the United States. This investigation represents the first study in the United States to characterize Pt concentrations and enrichment ratios in both road sediments and roadside soils in an urban (nonindustrialized) basin in Honolulu, Hawaii. Two independent analytical techniques—cathodic stripping voltammetry and lead-fire assay followed by ICP-AES—were used to quantify Pt in environmental media. Data from 10 road sediments confirm Pt contamination, with a median concentration of 33 ng g⁻¹ and a range of 15–160 ng g⁻¹. Upper soil horizons in roadside areas also exhibited contamination, with a median Pt value of 14 ng g⁻¹ (range 2–160 ng g⁻¹), but significantly lower than road sediments. Computation of robust enrichment ratios using baseline soil, geology, and tree bark data indicated that road sediments had a median Pt enrichment of 9 (range 4–46), upper soil horizons a median of 4, and lower horizons 1.1. The latter were not found to differ significantly from Pt baseline concentrations. However, several roadside sites exhibited significant enrichment with depth, which may indicate potential Pt mobility in this environment. These data support a substantial loading of Pt in the urban environment of Hawaii. Further work is required to characterize the distribution of other autocatalyst-associated noble metals palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) in the environment.

Analysis of Pesticides in Water and Sediment Under Different Storage Conditions Using Gas Chromatography by Merja Lyytikäinen; Jussi V. K. Kukkonen; Michael J. Lydy (pp. 0437-0444).

This paper describes the process of testing a simple low-solvent method for simultaneously extracting five classes of pesticides (triazines, organophosphates, organochlorines, pyrethroids, and carbamates) from reconstituted water and sediment. This method uses techniques available in most laboratories, namely solid phase extraction (SPE) and sonication in combination with gas chromatography. The recoveries of pesticides ranged from 60 to 120% with the exception of carbaryl, dicofol, and methoxychlor that had higher recoveries. Methods were further tested with pond water and soil samples. The recoveries of pesticides from soil were comparable with those from sediments, while in pond water, recoveries of the organochlorines exceeded 100%. A matrix enhancement effect was suspected to be the cause for the observed elevated recoveries. In order to determine time range and conditions in which the samples can be stored without significant losses, recoveries of pesticides in water and sediment were monitored for 28 days. Water samples were most stable when extracted immediately and stored in SPEs in the freezer. These samples remained stable for up to six weeks in the freezer, whereas sediment samples were stored for a month without a significant decrease in pesticide concentrations.

Sorption of Phosphate and Cr(VI) by Fe(III) and Cr(III) Hydroxides by Y. M. Tzou; M. K. Wang; R. H. Loeppert (pp. 0445-0453).

Understanding the chemical behavior and interactions of Cr(VI) (e.g., HCrO₄ ⁻) and other anions, such as orthophosphate (P) with insoluble metal hydroxides (i.e., Cr[III] and Fe[III]) in disposal landfills or in chromite ore processing residue (CORP)–enriched soil is very important in predicting the movement and the fate of Cr(VI). This study evaluates the sorption behavior of P and Cr(VI) by Fe(III) (i.e., ferrihydrite), Cr(III) (i.e., Cr[OH]₃), and coprecipitated Fe(III)/Cr(III) hydroxides. These metal hydroxide sorbents were synthesized, and sorption of P and Cr(VI) were conducted at different pH using a batch technology. Our results show that P and Cr(VI) sorption by metal hydroxides decreased with increasing suspension pH. Greater decrease in P sorption was observed when Cr(III) was present in the structures of hydroxides. Following the sorption of low concentration of P (i.e., 0.5 mM), the sorption of subsequently added Cr(VI) by hydroxides was less influenced. However, Cr(VI) sorption was greatly inhibited when high concentration of P (i.e., 10 mM) prereacted with hydroxides, particularly in Fe(III) hydroxide system. Results also indicated that high concentration of Cr(VI) (10 mM) could dissolve Cr(III) hydroxide at pH 3 and reprecipitate as an amorphous form of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) compound at pH about 6.5. Although coprecipitation of Cr(VI) with Cr(III) can inhibit Cr(VI) movement through soil profiles, the inhibition seems to be low due to the gradual release of Cr(VI) with increasing pH.

Study of Human Exposure to Particulate PAHs Using Personal Air Samplers by C. Y. Kuo; Y. W. Hsu; H. S. Lee (pp. 0454-0459).

Three common sources of environmental exposure to particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Taiwan were chosen for this study. They are smoke of incense burning, exhausts of motor vehicles, and fumes of charcoal burning. The campus environment without any specific PAH sources (nonpoint sources) was chosen as the control. The particulate PAH concentrations in the air samples containing smoke of incense burning were only slightly higher than those in the control. However, the total concentration of particulate PAHs in the air samples with exhausts of motor vehicles and fumes of charcoal burning was about 7.5 times and 22 times higher than those observed in the control, respectively. The mean inhalation amounts of particulate PAHs per unit time are very high both in samples with exhausts of motor vehicles (13.9 ng/min) and fumes of charcoal burning (38.1 ng/min). The exposure dose of 22 PAHs per day ranged from 3.18 to 18.0 μg/day under four exposure conditions. Moreover, the personal inhalation BaP_eq levels are in the range of 0.4 to 1.55 μg/day.

Dioxin Emission Factors for the Incineration of Different Medical Waste Types by M. C. M. Alvim Ferraz; S. A. V. Afonso (pp. 0460-0466).

Previous research works showed that to protect public health, hospital incinerators should be provided with equipment to reduce atmospheric emissions. Most hospital incinerators do not possess such equipment, so efficient methodologies should be developed to evaluate the safety of incineration procedures. Emission factors can be used for an easy estimation of the parameters defined in legislation. Nevertheless, the actual knowledge is very scarce, mainly because previously published emission factors do not include enough information about the incinerated waste types and the respective proportion in incinerated mixture. The existence of different waste classifications also reduces the usefulness of previously published results. This study reports the first dioxin emission factors estimated for the incineration of medical waste, segregated in different types according to the classification of the Portuguese legislation. The main purpose was to evaluate the influence of waste type on emission factors, assessing how useful they are if not associated to the composition of the incinerated mixture. The study also allowed analyzing the correspondence between different waste classifications that are being used, comparing the estimated emission factors with the sole results previously published for specific waste types but segregated according to a different classification. The influence of the incinerated waste type and segregation practices on the concentration and amount of emitted dioxin was assessed, as well as the influence of segregation practices on the amount of wastes that must be incinerated. To estimate eventual hazards for human health, dioxin concentrations in combustion gas flow were compared with the respective legal limits.

Toxicokinetics of Organic Contaminants in Hyalella azteca by Susanna Nuutinen; Peter F. Landrum; Lance J. Schuler; Jussi V. K. Kukkonen; Michael J. Lydy (pp. 0467-0475).

Uptake, biotransformation, and elimination rates were determined for pentachlorophenol (PCP), methyl parathion (MP), fluoranthene (FU), and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl (HCBP) using juvenile Hyalella azteca under water-only exposures. A two-compartment model that included biotransformation described the kinetics for each chemical. The uptake clearance coefficients (k_u) were 25.7 ± 2.9, 11.5 ± 1.1, 184.4 ± 9.3, and 251.7 ± 9.0 (ml g⁻¹ h⁻¹) for PCP, MP, FU, and HCBP, respectively. The elimination rate constant of the parent compound (k_ep) for MP was almost an order of magnitude faster (0.403 ± 0.070 h⁻¹) than for PCP and FU (0.061 ± 0.034 and 0.040 ± 0.008 h⁻¹). The elimination rate constants for FU and PCP metabolites (k_em) were similar to the parent compound elimination 0.040 ± 0.005 h⁻¹ and 0.076 ± 0.012 h⁻¹, respectively. For MP, the metabolites were excreted much more slowly than the parent compound (0.021 ± 0.001 h⁻¹). For PCP, FU, and MP whose metabolites were measured, the biological half-life (t_1/2p) of the parent compound was shorter than the half-life for metabolites (t_1/2m) because the rate is driven both by elimination and biotransformation processes. Thus, H. azteca is capable of metabolizing compounds with varying chemical structures and modes of toxic action, which may complicate interpretation of toxicity and bioaccumulation results. This finding improves our understanding of H. azteca as a test organism, because most biomonitoring activities do not account for biotransformation and some metabolites can contribute significantly to the noted toxicity.

Metal Accumulation and Binding Protein Induction in Mytilus galloprovincialis, Scapharca inaequivalvis, and Tapes philippinarum from the Lagoon of Venice by P. Irato; G. Santovito; A. Cassini; E. Piccinni; V. Albergoni (pp. 0476-0484).

Heavy metal pollution is known to be widespread in the sediments of the Lagoon of Venice. Therefore, physiological parameters influenced by this form of contamination were examined. The bivalve molluscs blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), ark clam (Scapharca inaequivalvis), and Japanese littleneck (Tapes philippinarum) were sampled in two sites (Marghera, Chioggia) every 3 months for 1 year. The digestive gland and gills of each bivalve were analyzed. The concentrations of essential and nonessential metals (including chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, and cadmium) were determined. Because glutathione and metallothioneins (MTs) are involved in metal homeostasis and detoxification, their concentrations were evaluated in relation to metal concentrations. Results show that (1) all three studied species accumulate metals to a considerable extent, with some species-specific differences between the digestive gland and gills; (2) gills are a good tissue to evaluate pollution by examining the MT content. In particular, the correlation between Zn and MT levels in the gills indicates that M. galloprovincialis and S. inaequivalvis are sentinel organisms and can be used specifically for Zn pollution; (3) T. philippinarum accumulates Cu in the digestive gland more readily than the other two bivalves and therefore has the highest MT.

Health of Flatfish from Localities in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, Contaminated with Petroleum and PCBs by R. A. Khan (pp. 0485-0492).

This study compared the health of flatfish inhabiting two areas in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, contaminated either with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) with samples from reference sites. Initially, four species of flatfish, including American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides), yellowtail flounder (Limanda ferruginea), gray sole (Glyptocephalus cynoglossus), and winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus), were sampled only for external lesions from commercial catches at three offshore sites. Others, captured by scuba divers at inshore sites, were autopsied to compare external lesions, condition (K) factor, hepatosomatic index (HSI), hemoglobin and lymphocyte levels, histological changes in the liver and spleen, and two parasites, metacercariae of Cryptocotyle lingua in the skin and a digenetic trematode, Steringophorus furciger, in the digestive tract. A higher prevalence of lesions occurred in the four species of flatfish caught offshore by commercial fisherman near the oil terminal and the PCB-contaminated dockyard than at a reference site. Lesions were also more prevalent in three species of flatfish captured by scuba divers inshore near the oil terminal and were associated with significantly lower K factor and lymphocyte levels but elevated HSI values and histopathological changes in the liver and spleen than in reference samples. Winter flounder sampled at two locations near the PCB-contaminated dockyard and a PAH-polluted small boat wharf also exhibited more external lesions, liver discoloration, and lower K factor, hemoglobin, and lymphocyte but higher HSI values and hepatic and splenic hemosiderosis than in reference fish. Prevalence of C. lingua in the skin was significantly greater but S. furciger in the digestive tract lower in samples taken from the aforementioned contaminated sites than from the reference locations. These results, based on several bioindicators, suggest that the health of bottom-dwelling flatfish at three sites of this embayment was impaired by chronic exposure to sediment contaminated with PAHs or PCBs.

Assessment of White Blood Cell Phagocytosis as an Immunological Indicator of Methylmercury Exposure in Birds by J. Holloway; A. M. Scheuhammer; H. M. Chan (pp. 0493-0501).

White blood cell (WBC) phagocytosis was investigated as a potential immunological indicator of methylmercury (MeHg) exposure in birds. The assay was first assessed using chicken WBCs dosed with MeHg in vitro either in whole blood or as isolated cells and later using blood of wild common loons exposed in vivo to a range of dietary MeHg and having a range of blood-Hg concentrations. Whole blood and isolated WBCs from captive chickens were exposed to a range of MeHg concentrations for 3 h. After MeHg exposure, cells were incubated with fluorescent latex microbeads (diameter = 1.75 μm), fixed, and analyzed for size, complexity, and fluorescent intensity by flow cytometry. MeHg significantly depressed phagocytic activity when added to isolated WBCs at concentrations > 0.01 μg/ml, but not when added to whole blood up to 50 μg/ml. Similarly, no significant relationship between the concentration of Hg in whole blood and phagocytic capacity of WBCs in free-living loons was observed. Our results suggest that the phagocytosis assay, although rapid and convenient for use in field studies with wildlife species, is not a responsive immunological indicator of MeHg exposure at environmentally realistic concentrations of blood-Hg in wild loons. Assays that measure other immunologic endpoints (e.g., bacterial killing assay, PHA skin test, and mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation) should be assessed with respect to their ability to detect MeHg immunotoxicity in wild birds.

Immune Function of Cryopreserved Avian Peripheral White Blood Cells: Potential Biomarkers of Contaminant Effects in Wild Birds by M. Finkelstein; K. A. Grasman; D. A. Croll; B. Tershy; D. R. Smith (pp. 0502-0509).

Contaminants can cause detrimental effects in wild birds. However, these effects are difficult to measure in all but the most severe cases. Immune function is a sensitive and meaningful biological marker of contaminant-induced effects in captive birds but has more limitations in wild birds due in part to the lack of a proven blood preservation method. We developed methods to assess ex vivo immune function in wild birds using cryopreserved peripheral white blood cells (WBCs). We assessed the effects of cryopreservation on WBC viability and functionality in two immunoassays (concavalin A–induced T lymphocyte proliferation and macrophage phagocytosis) in domestic chickens (Gallus spp.: white Wyandottes and Dominiques) and validated this approach on cryopreserved WBC samples from wild American coots (Fulicia americana). Cryopreservation of chicken WBCs caused a slight but significant decrease in cell viability (99% ± 0.2 SE for fresh cells versus 84% ± 2 SE for cryopreserved cells, p = 0.001, Mann-Whitney U, n = 8). No difference was detected in viability between cells that were cryopreserved for less than 10 days (88% ± 3.7 SE) and more than 50 days (89% ± 1.3 SE) (n = 6). Overall, there was no statistical difference in the performance of cryopreserved cells compared to fresh cells. Across multiple experiments, cryopreserved T lymphocytes exhibited 200–900% stimulated proliferation above nonstimulated cells, and 40–80% of cryopreserved macrophages ingested yeast. 9,10,Dimethyl-1,2-benz-anthracene (DMBA) reduced proliferation and phagocytosis in cryopreserved cells over an ex vivo exposure range of 0–170 μM DMBA. Tests of immune function on American coot WBCs cryopreserved for up to 10 months (viability of 72% ± 2.5 SE, n = 24) were similar to the cryopreserved chicken WBCs. This study will facilitate greater use of ex vivo immune function assays as tools to study effects of contaminant exposure in wildlife by demonstrating the viability and functionality of cryopreserved avian cells.

Toxicity of Lead-Contaminated Sediment to Mute Swans by D. D. Day; W. N. Beyer; D. J. Hoffman; A. Morton; L. Sileo; D. J. Audet; M. A. Ottinger (pp. 0510-0522).

Most ecotoxicological risk assessments of wildlife emphasize contaminant exposure through ingestion of food and water. However, the role of incidental ingestion of sediment-bound contaminants has not been adequately appreciated in these assessments. This study evaluates the toxicological consequences of contamination of sediments with metals from hard-rock mining and smelting activities. Lead-contaminated sediments collected from the Coeur d'Alene River Basin in Idaho were combined with either a commercial avian maintenance diet or ground rice and fed to captive mute swans (Cygnus olor) for 6 weeks. Experimental treatments consisted of maintenance or rice diets containing 0, 12 (no rice group), or 24% highly contaminated (3,950 μg/g lead) sediment or 24% reference (9.7 μg/g lead) sediment. Although none of the swans died, the group fed a rice diet containing 24% lead-contaminated sediment were the most severely affected, experiencing a 24% decrease in mean body weight, including three birds that became emaciated. All birds in this treatment group had nephrosis; abnormally dark, viscous bile; and significant (p ≤ 0.05) reductions in hematocrit and hemoglobin concentrations compared to their pretreatment levels. This group also had the greatest mean concentrations of lead in blood (3.2 μg/g), brain (2.2 μg/g), and liver (8.5 μg/g). These birds had significant (α = 0.05) increases in mean plasma alanine aminotransferase activity, cholesterol, and uric acid concentrations and decreased plasma triglyceride concentrations compared to all other treatment groups. After 14 days of exposure, mean protoporphyrin concentrations increased substantially, and mean δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity decreased by more than 95% in all groups fed diets containing highly contaminated sediments. All swans fed diets that contained 24% lead-contaminated sediment had renal acid-fast intranuclear inclusion bodies, which are diagnostic of lead poisoning in waterfowl. Body weight and hematocrit and hemoglobin concentrations in swans on control (no sediment) and reference (uncontaminated) sediment diets remained unchanged. These data provide evidence that mute swans consuming environmentally relevant concentrations of Coeur d'Alene River Basin sediment developed severe sublethal lead poisoning. Furthermore, toxic effects were more pronounced when the birds were fed lead-contaminated sediment combined with rice, which closely resembles the diet of swans in the wild.

Elemental Composition of Liver and Kidney Tissues of Rough-Toothed Dolphins (Steno bredanensis) by E. A. Mackey; R. D. Oflaz; M. S. Epstein; B. Buehler; B. J. Porter; T. Rowles; S. A. Wise; P. R. Becker (pp. 0523-0532).

AbstractOn December 14, 1997, 62 rough-toothed dolphins (Steno bredanensis) stranded on Cape San Blas, on the Florida coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Approximately 30 animals died either on the beach or in rehabilitation facilities. Two were successfully rehabilitated and released. Liver, kidney, blubber, and muscle tissues were collected from 15 animals that died on the beach. Portions of the liver and kidney from each dolphin were analyzed using instrumental neutron activation analysis and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to determine mass fractions of 37 elements. Levels of several electrolytes (Na, Cl, K, Br, Rb, I, Cs) and of the essential trace elements Fe, Cu, and Zn in both tissues were similar to those found in other Odontoceti. Mass fractions of Ca ranged from 60 mg/kg to 1,200 mg/kg (wet mass basis), indicating significant inhomogeneity in the kidney tissues of several animals. Necropsy reports noted that the kidneys of many of these animals contained fibrous nodules. The measured Ca inhomogeneity may be due to mineralization of the fibrous kidney tissue. Hepatic levels of Hg and Se were at the high end of the ranges generally found in livers of other Odontoceti and were slightly higher in animals with fibrous kidneys than in the others. Mass fractions of Se, Ag, and Hg in liver tissues increased with the size and age of the animals indicating accumulation of these elements in the liver with age. Results also indicate that Se and Hg accumulate in rough-toothed dolphin kidney. Accumulation of these elements with age has been reported commonly for marine mammals and other species.

Temporal Trends of Persistent Organochlorine Contamination in Russia: A Case Study of Baikal and Caspian Seal by Shinsuke Tanabe; Satoko Niimi; Tu Binh Minh; Nobuyuki Miyazaki; Evgeny A. Petrov (pp. 0533-0545).

To examine temporal trends of organochlorine (OC) contamination in Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea, concentrations of persistent OCs, such as DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), tris(4-chlorophenyl)methane (TCPMe), and tris(4-chlorophenyl)methanol (TCPMOH), in the blubber of female seals were determined. Collections were made in 1992, 1993, 1995 and 1998. DDT concentrations in Baikal and Caspian seals showed a rapid decline during 1992 to 1998, while the concentrations of PCBs declined slowly. Elevated concentrations of HCHs were found in Caspian seals and there was no decline in their concentrations during 1993 to 1998, which could be due to extensive usage of HCHs around Caspian Sea in recent years. Trends of TCPMe and TCPMOH residues in Caspian seals were similar to that of DDTs. The pattern of PCB isomers in both Baikal seals and Caspian seals exhibited little temporal variations. Concentrations of non-ortho coplanar PCBs have declined at a faster rate than those of mono-ortho congeners. Compilation of available data on OC contamination in the North Pacific, Antarctic, Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, and India suggested that the time trend of residues of contaminants during the 1990s were different among these regions. Residue levels of OC insecticides have declined slowly while PCBs remained at a steady state in the open oceans and the Antarctic. The magnitude of temporal variation in Lake Baikal seemed to be higher than that in the Caspian Sea. Residue concentrations of OCs have increased in Ganges River dolphins from 1989–92 to 1994–96, suggesting that tropical, developing countries are potential emission source of OCs.

Biological Monitoring of Bisphenol A in a Korean Population by Mihi Yang; Soo-Young Kim; Su-Man Lee; Seong-Sil Chang; Toshihiro Kawamoto; Jae-Yeon Jang; Yoon-Ok Ahn (pp. 0546-0551).

To conduct proper biological monitoring of environmental exposure to bisphenol A (BPA), the variation in host susceptibility need to be investigated. For this purpose, we studied effects of genetic polymorphism in sulfotransferase (SULT) 1A1 on urinary BPA, a biomarker for BPA exposure, in 73 Koreans (male, 34; female, 39; age, 48.9 ± 11.9 yrs). We used reverse phase-HPLC/FD for analysis of urinary BPA and obtained information from each subject on lifestyle, environment, and potential exposure to BPA via food. The HPLC/FD method showed good reproducibility (CVs < 0.1) and a relatively sensitive detection limit of 0.012 μg/L. These methods yielded a geometric mean of urinary BPA as 9.54 μg/L (8.91 μg/g creatinine), with a geometric standard deviation of 8.32 μg/L. Among potential routes for BPA exposure, only “vinyl wrapping of microwave heating” indicated a borderline positive association with urinary BPA level (p = 0.1). After PCR-RFLP, we found the allele frequencies of SULT1A1*1 and SULT1A1*2 were 0.89 and 0.11, respectively within the subjects. As the SULT1A1*1 allele of SULT1A1 is known to be a rapid sulfonylation-allele, the presence of SULT1A1*1 is suspected to rapidly dispose of environmental BPA. However resultant, urinary BPA levels were not significantly different between the SULT1A1*1/*1 identified subjects and the SULT1A1*1/*2 subjects. Therefore, to clarify host variability in urinary BPA level, different genetic polymorphisms in BPA metabolic enzymes other than SULT1A1 should be further studied.

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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.44, #4)