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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.43, #1)

Evaluation of Numerical Sediment Quality Targets for the St. Louis River Area of Concern by J. L. Crane; D. D. MacDonald; C. G. Ingersoll; D. E. Smorong; R. A. Lindskoog; C. G. Severn; T. A. Berger; L. J. Field (pp. 1-10).

Numerical sediment quality targets (SQTs) for the protection of sediment-dwelling organisms have been established for the St. Louis River Area of Concern (AOC), 1 of 42 current AOCs in the Great Lakes basin. The two types of SQTs were established primarily from consensus-based sediment quality guidelines. Level I SQTs are intended to identify contaminant concentrations below which harmful effects on sediment-dwelling organisms are unlikely to be observed. Level II SQTs are intended to identify contaminant concentrations above which harmful effects on sediment-dwelling organisms are likely to be observed. The predictive ability of the numerical SQTs was evaluated using the matching sediment chemistry and toxicity data set for the St. Louis River AOC. This evaluation involved determination of the incidence of toxicity to amphipods (Hyalella azteca) and midges (Chironomus tentans) within five ranges of Level II SQT quotients (i.e., mean probable effect concentration quotients [PEC-Qs]). The incidence of toxicity was determined based on the results of 10-day toxicity tests with amphipods (endpoints: survival and growth) and 10-day toxicity tests with midges (endpoints: survival and growth). For both toxicity tests, the incidence of toxicity increased as the mean PEC-Q ranges increased. The incidence of toxicity observed in these tests was also compared to that for other geographic areas in the Great Lakes region and in North America for 10- to 14-day amphipod (H. azteca) and 10- to 14-day midge (C. tentans or C. riparius) toxicity tests. In general, the predictive ability of the mean PEC-Qs was similar across geographic areas. The results of these predictive ability evaluations indicate that collectively the mean PEC-Qs provide a reliable basis for classifying sediments as toxic or not toxic in the St. Louis River AOC, in the larger geographic areas of the Great Lakes, and elsewhere in North America.

An Evaluation of the Use of Colonized Periphyton as an Indicator of Wastewater Impact in Near-Coastal Areas of the Gulf of Mexico by M. A. Lewis; D. L. Weber; J. C. Moore (pp. 11-18).

Receiving water impacts of point source discharges to the Gulf of Mexico are seldom reported on indigenous flora. The objective of this research was to evaluate the ability of colonized periphyton to provide this information. Water quality and biomass and pigment concentrations of the periphyton were determined at 27 stations located above and below 8 wastewater discharges. Most physicochemical parameters and concentrations of pesticides and PCBs were either unchanged or below detection in the receiving waters, which contrasted occasional increases in concentrations of several trace metals and nutrients. The response of the periphyton was specific to the wastewater, colonization station, response parameter, and colonization period. Statistically significant differences in biomass and pigment content occurred for at least one colonization station located below each of the eight outfalls. This represented a total of 18 of the 21 stations located in wastewater-impacted areas. Phytostimulation was more common than inhibition. Ash-free dry weight increased, on average, by 181% (± 1 SD = 123%) and chlorophyll a increased by 356% (± 593%) in wastewater-impacted areas. The in situ phytostimulation paralleled the stimulatory trend observed in standardized NPDES whole effluent tests conducted with cultured microalgae for four of eight wastewaters. The use of colonized periphyton as an indicator of wastewater impact was not simple. Spatial variation in response needs consideration to ensure relevancy of the results if this assessment methodology is used for near-coastal wastewater hazard evaluations.

Algicidal Effectiveness of Clearigate, Cutrine-Plus, and Copper Sulfate and Margins of Safety Associated with Their Use by C. L. Murray-Gulde; J. E. Heatley; A. L. Schwartzman; J. H. Rodgers, Jr. (pp. 19-27).

Laboratory studies of algicide toxicity to algal species provide information to improve the efficacy and efficiency of copper-containing algicides in actual field situations. The objectives of this study were (1) to measure the influence of copper form, initial concentration, and duration of exposure on the response of Raphidocelis subcapitata, a planktonic freshwater green alga; (2) to determine the contact time required for these copper-containing algicides (Clearigate®, Cutrine®-Plus, and copper sulfate) and the target species to obtain control; (3) to measure the critical burden of the three algicides required to obtain control of R. subcapitata; (4) to measure the residence time of the copper applied as the algicides in the water column of three waters having different water characteristics (i.e., alkalinity, hardness, pH, and conductivity); and (5) to contrast exposures of copper (as algicides) required to control algae and the lower thresholds causing adverse effects on sensitive nontarget animal species. Algal control (EC₁₀₀) was accomplished at 55.8, 117.5, and 187.5 μg Cu/L for CuSO₄, Cutrine-Plus and Clearigate with a contact time of 3 days in all cases. The critical burdens of copper (concentration sorbed by the algae) were 4.2, 7.3, and 7.9 μg Cu/mg algae (dry weight) for CuSO₄, Cutrine-Plus, and Clearigate, respectively. Because algicide toxicity generally decreases as cell density increases, the density of cells in algal blooms may hamper algicide effectiveness even at maximum label application rates. Determinations of critical burdens for algicides and target algal species provide necessary information to forecast the performance of algicide applications in field situations. The margin of safety (i.e., the difference between the concentration where control of algae was obtained and the lower threshold concentration causing adverse effects on nontarget species) was greatest for Cutrine-Plus. However, the margins of safety are minimal (< 0, 12.5, and 82.5 μg Cu/L for Ceriodaphnia dubia exposed to CuSO₄, Clearigate, and Cutrine-Plus, respectively) when they are applied according to their labels.

Toxicity of Cadmium and Zinc Mixtures to Diplostomum spathaceum (Trematoda: Diplostomidae) Cercarial Survival by N. J. Morley; M. Crane; J. W. Lewis (pp. 28-33).

The toxicity of cadmium and zinc mixtures at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 10,000 μg/L was investigated against the survival of the free-living cercarial stage of the parasitic fluke Diplostomum spathaceum. Cercariae were exposed to metal mixtures of equal concentration, metal mixtures of unequal concentration, and low-dose pretreatment followed by high-dose exposure mixtures. Under all exposures cercarial survival was increased compared to that achieved with single metals. At exposures with metal mixture of equal concentration in the range 0.1–100 μg/L survival was increased compared to that achieved by controls. The mechanism of metal toxicity and their effects on cercarial survival are discussed.

Indirect Effects of Heavy Metals on Parasites May Cause Shifts in Snail Species Compositions by H. Lefcort; M. Q. Aguon; K. A. Bond; K. R. Chapman; R. Chaquette; J. Clark; P. Kornachuk; B. Z. Lang; J. C. Martin (pp. 34-41).

We studied the direct and indirect effects of pollution on the distributions and abundances of two closely related species of pulmonate freshwater snails. Physella columbiana is more numerous at heavy metal–polluted lakes, and Lymnaea palustris is more numerous at reference lakes. Both species are present at all sites, as are predatory bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). The direct effects examined included the snails' growth and reproduction in both the presence and absence of heavy metals and their short-term survival when exposed to large concentrations of heavy metals. The indirect effects were the species' ability to elude capture by sunfish and the diversity and abundance of parasites within the snails.We found that heavy metals had little direct effect on growth and reproduction and that both species acquired similar levels of metals in their tissues. Interestingly, P. columbiana (the more abundant species in polluted lakes) actually exhibited higher recruitment in the absence of metals than did L. palustris (reference lakes). L. palustris has life history characteristics that favor increased growth and reduced reproduction. These characteristics resulted in decreased predation of adults by gape-limited predators and a greater ability to cope with heavy parasite burdens. P. columbiana exhibited slower growth, which resulted in increased predation although higher reproduction rates may compensate.The major effect of heavy metals on species distributions was indirect on the snails' parasites. Parasites appeared to be very susceptible to metals, and this resulted in lower parasite diversity and intensities at polluted sites for both species of snails. P. columbiana may only be able to outcompete L. palustris at polluted sites due to the indirect effects of heavy metals; the negative effect of heavy metals on parasites, and a proposed negative effect of metals on the foraging ability of sunfish that favors the faster-reproducing P. columbiana.

Teratogenic Effects of Amitraz, 2,4-Dimethylaniline, and Paraquat on Developing Frog (Xenopus) Embryos by O. Osano; A. A. Oladimeji; M. H. S. Kraak; W. Admiraal (pp. 42-49).

Developmental effects of amitraz (acaricide), its metabolite (2,4-dimethylaniline), and paraquat (herbicide) on embryos of a nontarget organism, Xenopus laevis, were investigated. Following the standard protocol of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the experiments were carried out using native Xenopus frogs. There was a drastic increase in mortality from 24 h to 96 h for paraquat, but 2,4-dimethylaniline showed no mortality at the highest concentration tested (100 mg/L). The 96-h LC₅₀ values were 0.67, 3.27, and ≫100 mg/L for paraquat, amitraz, and 2,4-dimethylaniline, respectively. At concentrations higher than 0.2 mg/L of paraquat all the embryos were malformed, whereas growth reduction was apparent at all test concentrations (0.1–5 mg/L). The most common teratogenic effects were flexures of the notochord and stunting of growth. Edema was the most common effect of amitraz on the embryos, and 100% of the surviving embryos in 5 mg/L were edematous. The 96-h EC₅₀ (malformation) values were 1.21 (95% CI 0.48–3.03) and 0.18 (95% CI 0.16–0.20) mg/L for amitraz and paraquat, respectively. The ratio of 96-h LC₅₀ to 96-h EC₅₀ (malformation), i.e., the teratogenicity index (TI) were 2.7 and 3.72 for amitraz and paraquat, respectively, and for 2,4-dimethylaniline (TI > 5) all the embryos in 25 mg/L showed observable pigment loss and encephalomegaly. This shows that paraquat and the degradation product of amitraz, 2,4-dimethylaniline, should be classified as teratogens. Teratogenic risks of massive application of these pesticides on Kenyan farms should therefore be considered.

Bisphenol A Accumulation in the Freshwater Clam Pisidium amnicum at Low Temperatures by J. Heinonen; J. Honkanen; J. V. K. Kukkonen; I. J. Holopainen (pp. 50-55).

Toxicokinetics of ¹⁴C-labeled bisphenol A (BPA) was studied in the small freshwater clam Pisidium amnicum at four ecologically relevant low temperatures (2, 6, 8, and 12°C). The uptake clearance (k u) of BPA increased from 1.49 to 6.55 ml · g⁻¹ · h⁻¹ as temperature increased from 2 to 8°C but decreased slightly again at the highest temperature. The depuration of BPA was very slow and statistically insignificant at 2°C, but the depuration rate (k d) increased linearly as temperature increased from 2 to 12°C. The longest half-life of BPA in clam tissues, 221 h, was found at the lowest temperature, and the highest bioconcentration factor of 144 was measured at 8°C. Data show that P. amnicum accumulates BPA so that the bioconcentration factor rises over 100 at each temperature tested. Further, the data demonstrate the importance of temperature on the processes that control both the uptake and elimination of this compound.

Toxicity of 17α-Ethinylestradiol and Bisphenol A to the Freshwater Cnidarian Hydra vulgaris by D. Pascoe; K. Carroll; W. Karntanut; M. M. Watts (pp. 56-63).

Estrogens and estrogen mimics that enter the environment are known to present a serious threat to the development and reproduction of vertebrates by disrupting their normal endocrine function. There is also concern that such chemicals may be damaging to invertebrates. In this study, Hydra vulgaris, a member of the Cnidaria, an evolutionarily primitive group of invertebrates present before the divergence of the protostomes and deuterostomes, was exposed to the synthetic estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) and bisphenol A (BPA), both of which are known to be estrogenic in fish. Effects on polyp survival, structure, and regeneration (and sexual reproduction for EE2) were examined and mortality was recorded at high concentrations, with 96-h LC₅₀s of 3.8 mg/L and 6.9 mg/L for EE2 and BPA, respectively. The structure and physiology of polyps was adversely affected at concentrations greater than 58 μg/L EE2 and 42 μg/L BPA. There was a concentration-related inhibition of regeneration above 150 μg/L EE2 and 460 μg/L BPA. Sexual reproduction was only impaired at 500 μg/L EE2. These results clearly suggest that the signaling processes necessary for the control and regulation of cell movement and differentiation during normal development, regeneration, and sexual reproduction in H. vulgaris are not disrupted by estrogenic pollutants at low environmentally relevant concentrations.

Accumulations of Nitrite and Nitrate in the Tissues of Penaeus monodon Exposed to a Combined Environment of Elevated Nitrite and Nitrate by S.-Y. Cheng; J.-C. Chen (pp. 64-74).

Penaeus monodon (11.86 ± 0.63 g) exposed individually to six different nitrite and nitrate regimes [nitrite at 0.002 (control), 0.360, and 1.455 mM combined with nitrate at 0.005 (control) and 7.275 mM] in 25 ppt sea water were examined for the nitrite and nitrate concentrations in tissues and nitrite uptake and nitrate uptake after 24 h in 25.3°C. In P. monodon following exposure to 1.455 mM nitrite only, nitrite levels increased by factors of 0.33, 1.05, 1.36, 1.79, 2.10, 2.16, 2.21, and 3.58 in muscle, hepatopancreas, gill, foregut, hemolymph, heart, eyestalk, and midgut, respectively, over the ambient nitrite level. In P. monodon, following exposure to combined solutions of 1.455 mM nitrite and 7.275 mM nitrate, nitrite levels were factors of 0.34, 1.05, 1.44, 1.86, 2.21, 2.30, 2.67, and 3.83 in muscle, hepatopancreas, gill, foregut, heart, hemolymph, eyestalk, and midgut, respectively, over the ambient nitrite levels, whereas nitrate levels were factors of 0.06, 0.11, 0.27, 0.29, 0.45, 0.51, 0.57, and 0.61 in muscle, hepatopancreas, foregut, heart, hemolymph, gill, midgut, and eyestalk, respectively, over the ambient nitrate levels. It is concluded that incorporation of nitrite is converted to nitrate in midgut, heart, hemolymph, foregut, and eyestalk, whereas incorporation of nitrate in tissues is converted to nitrite and accumulated in eyestalk when P. monodon are exposed to combined nitrite and nitrate environments.

Environmental, Biological, and Methodological Factors Affecting Cholinesterase Activity in Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) by T. A. Phillips; R. C. Summerfelt; G. J. Atchison (pp. 75-80).

Organophosphorus (OP) insecticides have high acute toxicity toward many nontarget vertebrate and invertebrate organisms, but direct measurement of OPs in environmental samples is difficult because their concentrations may fall below detection limits within hours to days after entering aquatic ecosystems. Because OPs exert toxicity through cholinesterase (ChE) inhibition, which may persist for up to several weeks, ChE inhibition has been widely used in aquatic ecosystems as a biomarker for OP exposure in aquatic organisms. However, the biological, environmental, and methodological factors affecting ChE activity have not been well documented and must be considered and understood before ChE activity can be used as a dependable indicator of OP exposure to aquatic organisms. This study examined the influence of water temperature, size of larval and juvenile walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), stress, long-term storage, postmortem changes, and methods of euthanasia on ChE activity. Water temperature (17.2, 20.9, and 24.6°C), stress, long-term storage (up to 180 days), postmortem changes, and method of euthanasia had no effect on ChE activity of walleye. There was a strong positive correlation (r = 0.87) between whole body ChE activity and total length (7.2–17.9 mm) for larval walleye, but a negative correlation between brain ChE activity and total length (59–164 mm) for juvenile walleye (r = 0.75). Because size, age, and development may affect ChE activity, fish of similar size should be used when evaluating the effects of ChE inhibitors. If fish of similar size are not available, it is recommended that relations between size, age, and development be understood so estimates of variation in ChE activity can be made.

Organochlorine Chemical Residues in Fish from the Mississippi River Basin, 1995 by C. J. Schmitt (pp. 81-97).

Fish were collected in late 1995 from 34 National Contaminant Biomonitoring Program (NCBP) stations and 13 National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) stations in the Mississippi River basin (MRB) and in late 1996 from a reference site in West Virginia. Four composite samples, each comprising (nominally) 10 adult common carp (Cyprinus carpio) or black bass (Micropterus spp.) of the same sex, were collected from each site and analyzed for organochlorine chemical residues by gas chromatography with electron capture detection. At the NCBP stations, which are located on relatively large rivers, concentrations of organochlorine chemical residues were generally lower than when last sampled in the mid-1980s. Residues derived from DDT (primarily p,p′-DDE) were detected at all sites (including the reference site); however, only traces (≤ 0.02 μg/g) of the parent insecticide (p,p′-DDT) were present, which indicates continued weathering of residual DDT from past use. Nevertheless, concentrations of DDT (as p,p′-DDE) in fish from the cotton-farming regions of the lower MRB were great enough to constitute a hazard to fish-eating wildlife and were especially high at the NAWQA sites on the lower-order rivers and streams of the Mississippi embayment. Mirex was detected at only two sites, both in Louisiana, and toxaphene was found exclusively in the lower MRB. Most cyclodiene pesticides (dieldrin, chlordane, and heptachlor epoxide) were more widespread in their distributions, but concentrations were lower than in the 1980s except at a site on the Mississippi River near Memphis, TN. Concentrations were also somewhat elevated at sites in the Corn Belt. Endrin was detected exclusively at the Memphis site. PCB concentrations generally declined, and residues were detected (≥ 0.05 μg/g) at only 35% of the stations, mostly in the more industrialized parts of the MRB.

Rainbow Trout Gills Are a Sensitive Biomarker of Short-Term Exposure to Waterborne Copper by R. W. Daglish; B. F. Nowak (pp. 98-102).

Hepatic copper levels may not indicate short-term exposure to waterborne copper in teleosts. Significantly higher copper loads were found in the gills of rainbow trout exposed to 105 μg · L⁻¹ total measured copper for a period of 24 h than in control animals where no differences were recorded in hepatic copper levels. A second experiment exposing trout to 153 μg · L⁻¹ total measured copper also demonstrated significant differences in branchial copper levels between control and exposed animals after 3 h exposure. The ratio of the copper load in the gills to the liver, and copper/zinc ratios of the gills were also examined. After exposure to 105 μg · L⁻¹ for 24 h both gill/liver copper ratios and Cu/Zn ratios in exposed animals were significantly greater than in control animals. After 12 h exposure to 153 μg · L⁻¹ total measured copper the gill Cu/Zn ratio was significantly greater than in control animals. These data indicate the gills may be a better indicator of short-term exposure than the liver.

Cattle as Biomonitors of Soil Arsenic, Copper, and Zinc Concentrations in Galicia (NW Spain) by M. López Alonso; J. L. Benedito; M. Miranda; C. Castillo; J. Hernández; R. F. Shore (pp. 103-108).

Determination of soil concentrations of trace and pollutant metals over large spatial areas requires laborious and expensive sampling effort. In this study, we examined the feasibility of using calves as biomonitors of soil semimetal and trace metal concentrations in Galicia (NW Spain), a region in which calves are predominantly reared on grass or locally grown forage. We determined the concentrations of arsenic, copper, and zinc in the liver, kidney, muscle, and blood of calves from across Galicia and related them to the metal concentrations in the soil from the areas in which the animals were reared. For each element, liver (but not usually kidney, muscle, or blood) concentrations were significantly elevated in animals from areas with higher soil concentrations. Liver arsenic concentrations were only markedly greater in animals from areas with soil arsenic levels > 20 mg/kg, and calves may not be sensitive enough biomonitors of background variation in soil levels, although they may be useful for monitoring anthropogenic arsenic contamination. Copper and zinc liver levels increased progressively with soil levels, and the pattern was especially marked for copper. The relatively unusual copper metabolism of cattle and other ruminants may make them particularly good biomonitors for environmental concentrations of this metal.

Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Caspian Seals (Phoca caspica) by I. Watanabe; T. Kunito; S. Tanabe; M. Amano; Y. Koyama; N. Miyazaki; E. A. Petrov; R. Tatsukawa (pp. 109-120).

Concentrations of heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cd, Co, and Hg) were determined in the muscle, liver, and kidney of 42 Caspian seals and fishes collected from the Caspian Sea in 1993. Higher Mn and lower Fe and Cu concentrations were found in the liver in comparison with other marine pinnipeds. Lower Cu concentrations in the liver appear to be a common feature in small seals belonging to subgenus Pusa, which include ringed, Baikal, and Caspian seals. However, low Fe and high Mn in livers were specific to Caspian seal. Concentrations of toxic metals such as Hg and Cd were relatively low. Pinniped species can be divided into two groups, based on accumulations of Cd or Hg in the liver. Interestingly, it was found that Cd-accumulating groups feed on invertebrates, whereas the preferred diet of Hg accumulators is fish. Caspian seals seemed to belong to the Hg-accumulating group.Cd and Hg concentrations in the liver and kidney of young animals increased with age. Mercury concentrations in adult animals increased with age continuously, whereas Cd concentrations in adult animals decreased. This trend might be due to preferential feeding habits and shift in ratio of Hg and Cd in the diet (i.e., invertebrates to fish).

Levels of Environmental Contaminants in Human Follicular Fluid, Serum, and Seminal Plasma of Couples Undergoing In Vitro Fertilization by E. V. Younglai; W. G. Foster; E. G. Hughes; K. Trim; J. F. Jarrell (pp. 121-126).

Environmental chemicals are thought to adversely affect human reproductive function, however there are no studies that have explored the association between failed fertilization and exposure of both partners to environmental contaminants. Therefore, we collected blood and follicular fluid from the female partner and seminal plasma from the male partner of 21 couples attending an in vitro fertilization (IVF) program, in order to determine the extent of the existence of environmental chemicals in these fluids. Any relationship to the outcome of IVF was also considered. Sera and fluids were analysed for a variety of contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides, cotinine, and the steroids progesterone and estradiol. Of the couples examined, 18 had fertilizations, three of whom became pregnant. There were no fertilizations in three other couples. The contaminants most frequently found in follicular fluid, more than 50% of the samples tested, were p,p′-DDE, mirex, hexachloroethane, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, PCB 49, PCB 153, and PCB 180. Cadmium was detected in eight of 21 (38.1%) samples of follicular fluid whereas cotinine was detected in 18 (85.7%). Residue levels of p,p′-DDE, endosulfan I, PCB 99, PCB 138, PCB 153, PCB 180 were quantified in more than 50% of the sera samples examined. Seminal plasma was relatively free of pollutants with mirex being the most frequently detected contaminant found in seven of 21 (33.3%) samples. Mirex could not be detected in the seminal plasma of the husbands whose partner's oocytes failed to fertilize whereas significant levels of mirex were found in the seminal plasma of all couples who had a pregnancy. Cadmium was also found in the follicular fluid of these pregnant subjects. No relationship was found between follicular fluid cotinine in pregnant and non-pregnant subjects. Where identical contaminants were found in both sera and follicular fluids, the levels were about twofold higher in serum and were positively correlated in both fluids. Fertilization was negatively correlated with serum and follicular fluid p,p′-DDE whereas pregnancy was positively correlated with follicular fluid PCB 49. These data reveal that more than 50% of the population of women attending a fertility program have had exposure to environmental chemicals sufficient to produce detectable concentrations in their serum and ovarian follicular fluid. Of the chemical contaminants detected in the serum and follicular fluid of these women, p,p′-DDE was the most frequently detected, had the highest residue levels, and was associated with failed fertilization.

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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.43, #1)