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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.38, #2)
Bacterial Reduction of Copper-Contaminated Ferric Oxide: Copper Toxicity and the Interaction Between Fermentative and Iron-Reducing Bacteria by J. T. Markwiese; P. J. S. Colberg (pp. 139-146).
Fe(III) oxide is an important heavy-metal sink, and bacteria are responsible for much of the Fe(III) reduced in nonsulfidogenic aquatic environments, yet factors governing the bacterial reduction of heavy metal–contaminated iron oxide are largely unknown. In this study with a stabilized bacterial consortium enriched from metal-contaminated sediments, we demonstrate that Cu toxicity impedes anaerobic carbon oxidation and bacterial reduction of hydrous ferric oxide (HFO). In the enrichment culture, a Clostridium sp. fermented lactate to propionate and acetate and Fe(III) reducers coupled acetate oxidation to HFO reduction. Increasing the amount of Cu in the culture medium significantly extended the time before Fe(III) reduction occurred and decreased the reduction rate, but did not affect the extent of HFO reduction. The Clostridium had a higher Cu-complexation capacity than the Fe(III) reducer Shewanella alga. Iron reduction was inhibited until almost all of the dissolved Cu was removed from solution and occurred two to seven times faster if the sediment enrichment culture was fed lactate instead of acetate. Our findings suggest that fermentative bacteria play a role in ameliorating heavy metal toxicity to iron-reducing bacteria. Fermenters may therefore enhance metal release in sediments by facilitating the bacterial reductive dissolution of heavy metal–contaminated HFO.
The pH Tolerance of Chlamydomonas applanata (Volvocales, Chlorophyta) by I. Visviki; D. Santikul (pp. 147-151).
The effects of hydrogen ions on the growth and ultrastructure of Chlamydomonas applanata Pringsheim were examined. This species exhibits wide tolerance growing at pH values ranging from 3.4 to 8.4, with optimum growth obtained at 7.4. Growth is noticeably depressed at pH 4.4 and 3.4. At the ultrastructural level, exposure to pH 4.4 results in a 10% decrease in cell volume of single vegetative cells, an increase in pyrenoidal volume, and reduction of starch reserves. Palmelloid colonies also appear. pH 3.4 induces excessive production of mucilage and leads to the preponderance of palmelloid colonies. Cell death of both colony and single cells is seen, as well as loss of motility and abnormal cell division. Surviving single cells are significantly larger than controls, with thicker cell walls, smaller chloroplasts, and larger vacuome. Such cells entering dormancy ensure the survival of the species in times of stress.
Photosynthesis Tests as an Alternative to Growth Tests for Hazard Assessment of Toxicant by S. Petersen; K. O. Kusk (pp. 152-157).
Acute (3- and 6-h) toxic responses toward Cu, linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), and tributyltin (TBT) of light-saturated and unsaturated photosynthesis were investigated for Rhodomonas salina and Skeletonema costatum obtained from exponentially growing batch cultures and from chemostat cultures limited by either nitrogen or phosphorus. The sensitivity of the photosynthesis tests were compared to standardized growth tests applied to the same species and toxicants. For Cu and S. costatum the photosynthesis test was up to 300 times more sensitive at light saturation than at light limitation. For the remaining photosynthesis tests no dependence on light condition were found. The photosynthesis tests with Cu and S. costatum were up to 10 times as sensitive as the growth test and most sensitive when the algae were obtained from a phosphate-limited chemostate. For the other photosynthesis tests no dependence on the growth condition were found, and the photosynthesis tests were as sensitive as the growth test. Photosynthesis tests offer an alternative to growth tests for hazard assessment of toxicants.
Accumulation of Mercury in Edible Macrofungi: Influence of Some Factors by J. Alonso; M. J. Salgado; M. A. García; M. J. Melgar (pp. 158-162).
The levels of mercury in terrestrial ecosystems are generally very low, but the strong accumulation in some species of macrofungi is an exception from this rule. Mercury contents of 41 samples of edible mushrooms fruiting bodies representing eight species (six wild and two cultivated) were determined by an anodic stripping voltammetric technique (ASV) using a gold disc as the working electrode. Wild fungi were collected in unpolluted and polluted areas in the Province of Lugo (NW Spain). Influence of some factors (ecology, species, traffic pollution, and morphological portion) and the importance of mushrooms as a dietary source of mercury have been studied. Wild saprophytic species showed higher levels (ppm DW) than mycorrhizals species, with the exception of Boletus pinicola. There were significant differences according to the species analyzed (p < 0.001), the highest average content of mercury was found in Boletus pinicola (7.37 ppm DW), and the range was 0.35–33.07 ppm DW for hymenophore and 0.18–20.30 ppm DW for the rest of the fruit body. The cultivated species accumulated lower than wild species because the mean life is shorter. The traffic pollution factor did not show significant differences, so mushrooms are not realiable bioindicators of traffic pollution by mercury. Hymenophore was always the morphological portion that contained the highest mercury levels (p < 0.05), and the mean ratio of hymenophore/rest of the fruit body was 2.13. The mercury concentrations were compared to literature data and levels set by legislation, and the contribution of mushrooms to the weekly intake of mercury per person was evaluated. The possible health risk for people is pointed out.
Toxicokinetics of DDE and 2-Chlorobiphenyl in Chironomus tentans by M. J. Lydy; J. L. Lasater; P. F. Landrum (pp. 163-168).
Uptake, biotransformation, and elimination rates for DDE and 2-chlorobiphenyl (2-CB) were examined using fourth instar midge larvae (Chironomus tentans) under a water-only exposure. A two-compartment model that included biotransformation described the kinetics for 2-CB and a one-compartment model was used for DDE. The uptake clearance coefficient (ku) was 65.96 ± 2.09 ml · g−1 midge · h−1 for 2-CB and 84.1 ± 2.7 ml · g−1 midge · h−1 for DDE. DDE demonstrated no measurable elimination, while 2-CB showed elimination with faster elimination of parent compound (kep = 0.100 ± 0.008 h−1) compared to the polar metabolites (kem = 0.073 ± 0.016 h−1). The biotransformation rate for 2-CB (km = 0.031 ± 0.005 h−1) appeared to be time-dependent with faster rates at the beginning of the accumulation process slowing to a constant once the midge was loaded with chemical. Experimental results indicate a difference in the ability of C. tentans to eliminate 2-CB and its metabolites more quickly than DDE, and these differences were related to the bioconcentration potential of the compounds.
Evaluation of Acute Toxicity and Genotoxicity of Liquid Products from Pyrolysis of Eucalyptus grandis Wood by A. S. Pimenta; J. M. Bayona; M. T. García; A. M. Solanas (pp. 169-175).
Slow pyrolysis of Eucalyptus grandis wood was performed in an oven laboratory, and smoke was trapped and condensed to yield liquid products. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phenolic fractions were isolated from the former liquid products using adsorption column chromatography (ACC) and identified by GC/MS. Concentrations of PAH and phenolic fractions in total pyrolysis liquids were respectively 48.9 μg/g and 8.59% (w/w). Acute toxicity of total samples of pyrolysis liquids and the phenolic fraction was evaluated by means of two bioassays, namely, 24-h immobilization bioassay with Daphnia magna and Microtox™ bioassays, the latter employing the luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. Total pyrolysis liquids and the PAH fraction were evaluated for genotoxicity by the Microtox™ bioassay conducted using rehydrated freeze-dried dark mutant of the luminescent bacteria Vibrio fisheri strain M169. Total pyrolysis liquids and the phenolic fraction, respectively, in concentrations of 170 and 68 mg/L were able to immobilize 50% (EC50) of the D. magna population following 24-h exposure. Concentrations of 19 and 6 mg/L, respectively, for total pyrolysis liquids and phenolic fraction were the effective concentrations that resulted in a 50% (EC50) reduction in light produced by bacteria in the Microtox™ bioassay. Accordingly, the Microtox™ bioassay was more sensitive to toxic effects of both kind of samples than the D. magna bioassay, particularly for the phenolic fraction. Regarding to the genotoxicity evaluation, the results achieved by Microtox™ bioassay showed that total pyrolysis liquids had no genotoxic effects with and without exogenous metabolic activation using rat liver homogenate (S9). However, the PAH fraction showed toxic effects with rat liver activation and had a dose-response number (DRN) equal to 1.6, being in this way suspected genotoxic. The lowest detected concentration (LDC) of the PAH fraction able to cause genotoxic effects was 375 μg/L.
Acute and Chronic Toxicity of the Herbicide Benzofenap (Taipan 300) to Chironomus tepperi Skuse (Diptera: Chironomidae) and Isidorella newcombi (Adams and Angas) (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) by A. L. Wilson; M. M. Stevens; R. J. Watts (pp. 176-181).
Acute and chronic toxicity tests were conducted on the herbicide benzofenap (Taipan® 300) using two Australian freshwater invertebrates. The commercial formulation of benzofenap and a blank formulation containing only the adjuvants of Taipan® 300 were tested against final instar larvae of the midge Chironomus tepperi and adults of the aquatic snail Isidorella newcombi. In 24-h acute bioassays the midge larvae did not show significant mortality at a nominal concentration of 1.2 mg/L active ingredient (AI), double the maximum notional concentration expected in rice fields after application of Taipan® 300 at the permit rate of 2 L/ha. No significant snail mortality was recorded in acute bioassays (24-h exposure, 48-h recovery) at nominal concentrations up to 76 mg/L AI, which is over 120 times the maximum notional field concentration. In chronic assays, the pupation and emergence of C. tepperi was monitored after a 4-h pulse exposure of final instar larvae to Taipan® 300 (nominal concentrations 0.001 to 0.1 mg/L AI) and adjuvant-only (0.1 mg/L equivalent) treatments. No statistically significant effects were observed, although emergence appeared to be delayed by higher benzofenap concentrations and by the adjuvant-only treatment. During snail bioassays, egg and feces production were monitored for 21 days after 24-h exposure to Taipan® 300 (nominal concentrations 1.2 mg/L to 60 mg/L AI) and adjuvant-only treatments (60 mg/L equivalent). No significant chronic effects were proven against I. newcombi, despite a decline in egg mass production following exposure to all treatments and a reduction in the total numbers of eggs produced at the highest nominal concentrations tested (60 mg/L AI and adjuvant-only treatments). Similarly, feces production by snail pairs exposed to the majority of treatments declined, but these differences were not statistically significant. It is concluded that Taipan® 300 does not represent a significant risk to mature C. tepperi larvae or adult I. newcombi in downstream environments when applied to rice fields at the permit rate of 2 L/ha.
Effect of Different Combinations of MGK-264 or Piperonyl Butoxide with Plant-Derived Molluscicides on Snail Reproduction by K. Singh; D. K. Singh (pp. 182-190).
Effect of sublethal treatment (20% and 60% of LC50/24 h) of plant-derived molluscicides, viz. Polianthes tuberosa, Trachyspermum ammi, Allium sativum powder; Azadirachta indica oil; oleoresin of Zingiber officinale; and their active molluscicidal component in combination (1:5) with MGK-264 or piperonyl butoxide on the reproduction of snail Lymnaea acuminata have been studied. It was observed that the combination of plant derived molluscicide and their active molluscicidal components, viz. tigogenin, hecogenin, azadirachtin, allicin, thymol, and [6]-gingerol combination with MGK-264 or piperonyl butoxide caused a significant reduction in fecundity, hatchability, and survival of young snails. Withdrawal of snails to fresh water after the above treatment caused a significant recovery in the fecundity of L. acuminata.
Toxicity of Cadmium-Contaminated Clay to the Zebrafish Danio rerio by K. Van den Belt; S. Van Puymbroeck; H. Witters (pp. 191-196).
In this study, the toxicity of cadmium-contaminated clay to the zebrafish Danio rerio was evaluated. Kaolin clay was spiked with CdCl2 (1.28 mg Cd/g clay) and adult zebrafish were exposed to 0, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/L Cd-contaminated clay in a continuous recirculation system. Cumulative mortality was evaluated as a function of exposure time, and LT50 values were calculated. Results of acute toxicity tests showed that an exposure to 1,000 mg/L Cd-contaminated clay resulted in LT50 values of 12 and 92 h (n = 2 experiments) and in a LT50 value of 22 h in both experiments with 2,000 mg/L Cd-contaminated clay. Positive control experiments with corresponding measured dissolved Cd concentrations were performed to evaluate by comparison the toxicity of the clay-bound Cd. These control experiments gave LT50 values higher than 144 h for both conditions. Moreover, no toxicity (LT50 > 144 h) of 2,000 mg/L uncontaminated clay was observed. This study showed that cadmium present on clay particles can be bioavailable and exert a toxic effect to the zebrafish D. rerio.
Decontamination of Winter Flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) Following Chronic Exposure to Effluent from a Pulp and Paper Mill by R. A. Khan; R. G. Hooper (pp. 197-201).
A study was conducted to determine the influence of decontamination on winter flounder living downstream from a pulp and paper mill. The fish and controls were held 8–26 weeks under contaminant-free conditions in aquaria supplied with ambient sea water. Groups of flounder, for comparison, were also sampled near the paper mill at the time of or following autopsy. No differences were apparent in length/organ-weight relationships between depurated and control groups after 26 weeks at 0–6°C, but condition factor, gonadal and hepatosomatic indices, coincident with elevated levels of detoxifying enzymes, differed from field-derived samples. Pathological changes, including hemosiderin deposits in the liver and spleen, decreased, whereas pericholangitis and clear cell foci were apparent in the depurated fish and in the field samples. In two additional groups decontaminated for 8–16 weeks at 6–16°C, there was no evidence of pericholangitis, but hemosiderin deposits persisted and an increase of fibrosis and clear cell foci occurred in contrast to the field group. These results suggest that some tissue repair in the liver transpired primarily during summer while other lesions, such as preneoplastic clear cell foci, which were probably induced prior to depuration, increased, but hemosiderin concentration remained unchanged. The latter observation is consistent with previous studies that suggest that hemosiderin concentration is not seasonally but age influenced.
PCBs and Organochlorines in Tissues of Silverside (Odontesthes bonariensis) from a Coastal Lagoon in Argentina by M. L. Menone; J. E. Aizpún de Moreno; V. J. Moreno; A. L. Lanfranchi; T. L. Metcalfe; C. D. Metcalfe (pp. 202-208).
A freshwater fish species, silverside (Odontesthes bonariensis) from Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon, Argentina, was analyzed for concentrations of several organochlorine pesticides (OCs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in liver, gonads, mesenteric fat and muscle, and the contents of the digestive tract over several stages of sexual maturation. PCBs and OCs were detected at ng/g concentrations (wet weight) in pooled samples, with levels generally in the order of fat > liver > gonad > muscle, reflecting the differences in tissue lipid content. Lipid-normalized concentrations of the analytes were relatively consistent among tissues, except for significantly higher concentrations of PCBs (e.g., 447.7 ng/g lipid wt) in the ovaries of female silverside. DDT and its metabolites, γ-HCH, and several insecticides from the cyclodiene class, including endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate, were the predominant OCs in fish tissues and the contents of the digestive tract, reflecting recent and past pesticide use in this region. The ratio of OCs to PCBs in all tissues was >1; consistent with contamination of the region with OC pesticides. However, PCBs were dominated by penta- and hexachlorobiphenyls, which is consistent with direct (i.e., nonatmospheric) inputs. Biomagnification of penta- and hexachlorobiphenyl PCB congeners was noted in fish tissues relative to the contents of the digestive tract. Total OC and PCB concentrations in the ovaries and muscle of silverside were below concentrations associated with reproductive impairment in fish or the limits for human consumption, respectively.
Concentrations of PCBs, DDTs, and TCDD Equivalents in Cyprinids of the Middle Po River, Italy by L. Viganò; A. Arillo; S. Aurigi; I. Corsi; S. Focardi (pp. 209-216).
The concentrations of non-ortho-, mono-ortho-, di-ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDTs (pp′-DDT and pp′-DDE) were measured in fish and bed sediments of the Po River. Three species of cyprinids, nase (Chondrostoma söetta), chub (Leuciscus cephalus), and barbel (Barbus plebejus), were captured in the major Italian river, upstream and downstream from the confluence of the Lambro River. The two carnivorous species, chub and barbel, were found to be the most contaminated, showing muscle tissue concentrations up to eightfold higher than the corresponding upstream fish. DDT concentrations were parallel to PCB changes although at lower values. Despite the increased contamination caused by the input from the Lambro tributary, when fish PCB loads are converted to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) equivalents using piscine toxic equivalency factors (TEFs), no specific hazard can be associated to the limited toxic potentials of PCBs. Although these results seem to minimise the risk for the fish community of the Po River, the presence of other organochlorines and halogenated hydrocarbons is very probable in the downstream area, and a more exhaustive hazard assessment, based on further studies, should be undertaken.
Congener-Specific Determination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Shark and Grouper Livers from the Northwest African Atlantic Ocean by R. Serrano; M. Fernández; R. Rabanal; M. Hernández; M. J. Gonzalez (pp. 217-224).
Concentrations of 24 individual PCB congeners have been measured in livers of groupers (Epinephelus marginatus) and eight shark species (Centroscymnus coelolepis, Centrophorus squamosus, Dalatias licha, Hydrolagus affinis, Deania profundorum, Centroscymnus cryptacanthus, Etmopterus princeps, Deania histricosa) collected between 1994 and 1995 from the northwest African Atlantic Ocean. The concentration range of the total PCBs was 39.4–4,723 ng/g (wet weight). The TEQs found were between 0.15 and 197 pg/g (wet weight). Analysis has revealed differences in PCB content and PCB profiles among the eight shark and grouper species. The location and depth at which the shark lives and the liver lipid content were related with their PCB liver concentrations. The PCB profiles were dominated by congeners 138 and 153, and among the most toxic congeners the order of abundance was PCB 77 > 126 > 169. Chiral PCBs 95, 132, 136, 149, and 174 were found to be racemic or nearly racemic in almost all the groupers (E. marginatus) studied. The PCB profiles of shark species and groupers were compared by principal component analysis. Samples were separated into groups according their trophic levels and geographical variations.
Impact of Polychlorinated Naphthalenes (PCNs) in Juvenile Baltic Salmon, Salmo salar: Evaluation of Estrogenic Effects, Development, and CYP1A Induction by N. Åkerblom; K. Olsson; A. H. Berg; P. L. Andersson; M. Tysklind; L. Förlin; L. Norrgren (pp. 225-233).
Juvenile Baltic salmon, Salmo salar, were fed commercial salmon food contaminated with different concentrations of polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs; 0.1, 1, 2, or 10 μg PCN/g food). Among other effects, possible estrogenic impact caused by PCNs were evaluated. Fish were therefore fed a diet contaminated with 17β-estradiol (E2; 0.94 or 9.4 μg E2/g food), as a positive control. After 8, 13, 17, and 41 weeks, sampling took place. Growth, liver somatic index (LSI), EROD activity, and vitellogenin content in blood plasma were measured along with morphological studies of gonads and chemical analyses to determine the effects caused by PCNs. Exposure to PCNs did not seem to have any effects on body weight gain, since the group fed the high dose followed the growth in the control group during the entirely experimental period. After 41 weeks of exposure the groups fed 2 and 10 μg PCN/g food had significantly lower LSIs compared with the control, indicating liver toxic effects of PCNs. Furthermore, a dose-dependent induction of EROD activity was found. At week 41, the control group had an activity of 4.9 ± 4.8 pmol/mg prot/min, whereas it was between 69 ± 21 and 720 ± 370 pmol/mg prot/min in the exposed groups, respectively. Examination of gonadal morphology showed that PCNs also had negative effects on ovaries in Baltic salmon, including delayed development. The distribution between females and males, gonadal morphology, and vitellogenin content in blood plasma did, however, indicate that PCNs are not capable of causing effects similar to E2 or xenoestrogens. Exposure to both of the concentrations of E2 resulted in decreased body weight gain, increased LSI, and feminization of the gonads. E2 did, however, not induce any EROD activity.
Organochlorines and Possible Biochemical Effects in Glaucous Gulls (Larus hyperboreus) from Bjørnøya, the Barents Sea by E. O. Henriksen; G. W. Gabrielsen; S. Trudeau; J. Wolkers; K. Sagerup; J. U. Skaare (pp. 234-243).
To study possible biochemical effects of organochlorine contaminants (OCs) in glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), 40 adult individuals were collected from colonies on Bjørnøya in the Barents Sea. OCs (four pesticides and nine PCB congeners), microsomal 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity, microsomal testosterone hydroxylation, highly carboxylated porphyrins (HCPs), retinol, and retinyl palmitate were quantified in liver samples. The hepatic vitamin A stores in glaucous gulls were larger than in herring gulls (Larus argentatus) from other studies conducted in contaminated locations in North America. No significant relationships were found between liver retinoid concentrations and OC levels. The hepatic EROD activity was low compared to other studies on fish-eating birds and only marginally associated with PCB levels. Microsomal testosterone hydroxylase activity was only observed at the 6β-position and could not be related to OC levels. The low P450-associated enzyme activities in the glaucous gull suggests that they have a low capacity for metabolizing OCs, which may contribute to the high accumulation of OCs in this species. HCPs were only elevated (138 pmol g−1) in the sample with highest OC levels, whereas the remaining samples contained low levels of HCPs (<30 pmol g−1). The weak association between EROD activity and PCB levels and the low level of HCPs suggest that these biochemical parameters were unaffected by OCs in most of the sampled gulls. Thus, the glaucous gull seems not to be particularly sensitive toward Ah-receptor mediated effects.
Geographic Variation in Hematological Variables in Adult and Prefledgling Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) and Possible Associations with Organochlorine Exposure by K. A. Grasman; P. F. Scanlon; G. A. Fox (pp. 244-253).
The objectives of this study were (1) to describe variation in hematological values found in adult and prefledgling herring gulls (Larus argentatus) over a large geographic area, (2) to investigate relationships between hematological variables and other physiological indices, and (3) to examine potential associations between exposure to organochlorines and hematological variables. During 1991–93, we sampled 160 breeding adult gulls from 13 colonies and 101 4-week-old gulls from 11 colonies. All colonies were in the Great Lakes ecosystem, except for two colonies on Lake Winnipeg and the Atlantic coast. The hematological values measured in this study were similar to published values for herring gulls and related species. Significant intersite differences were found in hematological variables. Sex had little or no influence on leukocyte variables. Adults had lower total leukocyte counts and higher heterophil to lymphocyte ratios than chicks. PCV was lower in adult females than males. In adults, total leukocyte and total heterophil numbers were negatively associated with liver activity of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) and concentrations of highly carboxylated porphyrins (HCPs), two biomarkers of organochlorine exposure. Total leukocyte and total heterophil numbers were positively associated with liver concentrations of DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene), and total lymphocytes were associated positively with PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) and HCP concentrations. The heterophil to lymphocyte ratio was negatively associated with liver EROD activity and HCPs. In chicks, there was a positive association between the heterophil to lymphocyte ratio and HG-TEQs (dioxin toxicity equivalents calculated using herring gull–specific equivalency factors). PCV was associated with some measures of contaminant exposure in adults and chicks. Additional research is needed to elucidate causal relationships between hematological indices and such factors as contaminants, disease, and nutrition.
Metals in Laysan Albatrosses from Midway Atoll by J. Burger; M. Gochfeld (pp. 254-259).
We examined the concentrations of lead, cadmium, selenium, chromium, manganese, arsenic, tin, and mercury in the heart, liver, kidney, salt gland, and feathers of adult (n = 10) and young (n = 15) Laysan albatrosses (Diomedea immutabilis) from Midway Atoll in the north-central Pacific Ocean. Lead poisoning has been reported in some Laysans nesting near buildings on Midway, but other heavy metals have not been examined. We examined tissue distribution of metals by age and gender (adults only). We also examined tissue concentrations in three birds with a droop-wing syndrome characteristic of lead poisoning. We compared metal levels in salt gland (a special excretory organ of marine birds) with those in other tissues. All metals varied significantly across tissues in both adults and chicks, and the relative tissue concentrations were similar in adults and chicks for most metals. Adults had higher levels of most metals in most organs, with significant differences mainly for cadmium (up to 20× higher in kidney and salt gland) and for mercury (17× higher in kidney). However, chicks had significantly higher manganese in liver and arsenic in salt gland. The salt gland had concentrations of most metals (except cadmium, selenium, and mercury) comparable to the kidney levels, which is consistent with it serving as an excretory organ for the cations. Chicks with droop-wings had very elevated levels of lead in their tissue (16.8 ppm in feathers, 14 ppm in liver and kidney), whereas levels of other metals were not significantly different from the apparently normal chicks.
A Study of the Lethal and Sublethal Toxicity of Polyphase P-100, an Antisapstain Fungicide Containing 3-Iodo-2-Propynyl Butyl Carbamate (IPBC), on Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates
by A. P. Farrell; E. Stockner; C. J. Kennedy (pp. 260-261).