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Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (v.37, #2)
Assessment of PCBs and Hydroxylated PCBs as Potential Xenoestrogens: In Vitro Studies Based on MCF-7 Cell Proliferation and Induction of Vitellogenin in Primary Culture of Rainbow Trout Hepatocytes by P. L. Andersson; A. Blom; A. Johannisson; M. Pesonen; M. Tysklind; A. H. Berg; P.-E. Olsson; L. Norrgren (pp. 145-150).
In the present study, four structurally diverse polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were chosen from a set of 20 PCBs selected to represent the 154 tetra- through hepta-chlorinated biphenyls. The purpose was to determine estrogenic activities of the chosen PCBs and five of their hydroxylated derivatives (OH-PCBs). A human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and primary cultures of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) hepatocytes were used to determine estrogenic effects. The PCBs 2,2′,4,6,6′-pentachlorobiphenyl (104) and 2,2′,3,4′, 5,6,6′-heptachlorobiphenyl (188), and the hydroxylated PCBs 2,2′,4′,6′-tetrachloro-4-biphenylol (4′-50), 2′,4′,6′-trichloro-4-biphenylol (4′-30), 2′,3,5,5′-tetrachloro-4-biphenylol (4′-72), 2′,3,3′,5′,6′-pentachloro-4-biphenylol (4′-112), and 2′,3,4′,5,6′-pentachloro-4-biphenylol (4′-121) significantly increased MCF-7 cell proliferation. The coaddition of hydroxytamoxifen, an estrogen antagonist, inhibited increased cell proliferation. The activity of the hydroxylated PCBs 4′-50 and 4′-30 was significantly higher at all nominal concentrations tested as compared to the corresponding PCB, viz., PCB 104. The hydroxylated PCBs 4′-50, 4′-30, 4′-72 and 4′-112 induced vitellogenin synthesis in rainbow trout hepatocytes. Significant differences were found in the MCF-7 system between the parent PCB and its hydroxylated derivative, viz., for 4′-50/4′-30 and 104, and in the rainbow trout hepatocyte assay between 4′-112 and 112, respectively. No activity was observed for PCB 58 in any of the two assays in the present study. Even though cells from two different species (human and fish) are used in the present study, the results obtained by the two methods agree fairly well. In both studies the hydroxylated PCBs were more active than the PCBs, and 4′-30 was the most active compound second only to 17β-estradiol.
Characterization of Alpha-Pinene-Degrading Microorganisms and Application to a Bench-Scale Biofiltration System for VOC Degradation by G. T. Kleinheinz; S. T. Bagley; W. P. St. John; J. R. Rughani; G. D. McGinnis (pp. 151-157).
A study was conducted to isolate and characterize monoterpene-degrading microorganisms and apply them to a biofiltration unit for use in degrading high levels of α-pinene. Soil from a monoterpene-contaminated site was used with enrichment culture techniques to recover a consortium of bacteria able to utilize α-pinene as the sole source of carbon and energy. The Biolog system was utilized to identify the bacteria as Pseudomonas fluorescens and Alcaligenes xylosoxidans. Aerobic growth and biodegradation studies confirmed that rapid growth and biodegradation were being achieved with α-pinene. Complete degradation of α-pinene was achieved in 36 h with a maximum rate of degradation of 3.9 mg/L/h. The microorganisms were placed in a biofiltration column and demonstrated good removal of α-pinene from an air stream at concentrations averaging 295 ppmv. A nitrogen test was performed and confirmed that the removal of α-pinene was due to biological activity. Given the ability of these microorganisms to utilize high levels of α-pinene, they will be used in a coupled treatment system using a physical/chemical adsorption/desorption unit coupled to a biofiltration column. Often, biofiltration studies are performed using much lower levels of analyte in the influent air stream. However, the ability of these microorganisms to utilize higher levels of compounds expands the capabilities for future coupled biofiltration systems. During future studies, high flow rates with low levels of analyte will be concentrated so that a higher analyte concentration and lower flow rate can be utilized with the biofilter.
Biodegradability of Cefotiam, Ciprofloxacin, Meropenem, Penicillin G, and Sulfamethoxazole and Inhibition of Waste Water Bacteria by A. Al-Ahmad; F. D. Daschner; K. Kümmerer (pp. 158-163).
Most antibiotics are metabolized only incompletely by patients after administration and enter the municipal sewage with the patients' excretions. Little is known about their biodegradability in aquatic environments and their role with respect to growing bacterial resistance. Therefore, the biodegradability of some clinically important antibiotic drugs as a very first step of an environmental risk assessment was investigated with the OECD closed bottle test (CBT). To assess toxicity of the test compounds against aquatic bacteria (1) a growth inhibition test (GIT) with Pseudomonas putida was conducted; (2) a toxicity control was used in the CBT; and (3) the colony-forming units (CFUs) were monitored in the test vessels. Theoretical concentrations of the test substances in hospital effluents were calculated and compared with minimum inhibitory concentrations for susceptible pathogenic bacteria. None of the test compounds met the criteria for ready biodegradability. Only penicillin G was biodegradable to some degree (27%), even when the test was prolonged from 28 to 40 days (35%). The inhibition concentrations measured in the GIT were in the same range or lower than the 50% minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC50) known for susceptible pathogenic bacteria. CFU monitoring revealed high toxicity for sulfamethoxazole, whereas ciprofloxacin had a weak but significant effect; only for meropenem a weak but significant effect was measured in the toxicity control of the CBT. MIC50 published for susceptible pathogenic bacteria were for all compounds in the same range as the concentrations expected for hospital effluents. Therefore, antibiotic drugs emitted into municipal sewage may affect the biological process in sewage treatment plants (STPs), and they may persist in the aquatic environment and contribute to the increasing resistance of pathogenic bacteria.
Bioassay-Directed Identification of Organic Toxicants in River Sediment in the Industrial Region of Bitterfeld (Germany)—A Contribution to Hazard Assessment by W. Brack; R. Altenburger; U. Ensenbach; M. Möder; H. Segner; G. Schüürmann (pp. 164-174).
Bioassay-directed identification of toxicants in an acetonic extract of a sediment of the riverine Spittelwasser in the industrial region of Bitterfeld (Germany) was conducted. For this purpose, a combination of chromatographical fractionation, chemical analysis, and a biotest battery including Vibrio fischeri (inhibition of bioluminescence), Daphnia magna (immobilization), and Scenedesmus vacuolatus (inhibition of cell multiplication) was applied. Major toxicants identified and confirmed were methyl parathion (D. magna), prometryn, N-phenyl-β-naphthalene amine, PAHs (S. vacuolatus), and tributyltin (all biotests). Toxicity to V. fischeri was dominated by elemental sulfur. Results indicate high toxicant loads in the sediment about 7 years after closedown of a majority of chemical production sites at Bitterfeld. Comparison of potential exposure and toxicity data indicate a severe hazard potential to aquatic organisms due to organic toxicants. The results illustrate the potency of a biotest battery for identification of toxicants in contaminated sediment within the frame of toxicity identification procedures.
Fluctuating Life-History Parameters Indicating Temporal Variability in Metal Adaptation in Riverine Chironomids by D. Groenendijk; B. van Opzeeland; L. M. Dionisio Pires; J. F. Postma (pp. 175-181).
Adaptation to toxicants in animal populations is influenced primarily by two counteracting forces. First, the intensity and duration of peak concentrations of toxicants is responsible for the actual level of selection pressure on the population. Second, the process of adaptation can be disrupted by gene flow as a result of crossings with nontolerant individuals. These counteracting forces were analyzed in riverine insects in which we expected that the level of metal adaptation is subject of considerable fluctuations, due to variable dilution of metals and a variable transport of nontolerant individuals in river water. To this purpose, the stability of metal adaptation in different Chironomus riparius populations was analyzed during a 5-month period in a heavily polluted lowland river. This was examined by measuring mortality, larval dry weight, and accumulation of zinc under laboratory conditions. The results showed that in midge populations originating from metal-contaminated field sites several life-history parameters (like control mortality and growth response under cadmium exposure) of the laboratory reared F1 generations showed considerable temporal variation. In addition, the presence of metal-adapted midge populations was indicated on several occasions on the metal-exposed field sites. Reference populations on the other hand, showed stable life history patterns throughout the sampling period, and no signs of metal adaptation were found. These observations showed that the actual level of metal adaptation varies considerably, both in time and space. Adaptation to metals in riverine chironomids, therefore, should be looked on as a highly dynamic process.
Triad Assessment of the Impact of Chromium Contamination on Benthic Macroinvertebrates in the Chusovaya River (Urals, Russia) by H. A. Leslie; T. I. Pavluk; A. bij de Vaate; M. H. S. Kraak (pp. 182-189).
The impact of chromium (Cr) contamination on the benthic macroinvertebrate community of the Chusovaya River in the Ural Mountains of Russia was assessed using a triad approach. The triad consisted of chemical analysis of the contamination in various environmental compartments, examination of the benthic macroinvertebrate community structure, and analysis of ecotoxicological effects on the caddisfly Hydropsyche pellucidula (Trichoptera). Chemical analyses of water, sediments, and detritus indicated that the main contaminant present was indeed Cr and that the level of the Cr contamination near the point source, a severely polluted dead tributary, was extremely high: Downstream Cr concentrations were about 450 times higher in water and 25 times higher in sediments compared with a clean reference site upstream. The contamination at the mouth of the tributary was even more severe: 800 times more Cr in water and 50 times more Cr in sediments. Benthic macroinvertebrate community structure was studied using artificial substrates colonized in situ. Lower species richness was observed at the downstream site compared with the upstream site. Larvae of H. pellucidula collected from the contaminated site on the river bioaccumulated large amounts of Cr and exhibited physical abnormalities. The incidence of tracheal gill damage was significantly higher than at a reference site on the nearby Reshotka River, as was the incidence of discoloration of the anal papillae of these animals. The application of a triad demonstrated that the observed extreme Cr contamination had an adverse effect on aquatic life in the Chusovaya River, both at the community level (reduced diversity) and at the level of individuals (sublethal effects on surviving individuals).
Experimental Studies on Lead Accumulation in the Eel-Specific Endoparasites Anguillicola crassus (Nematoda) and Paratenuisentis ambiguus (Acanthocephala) as Compared with Their Host, Anguilla anguilla by S. Zimmermann; B. Sures; H. Taraschewski (pp. 190-195).
The effect of salinity and the mode of application (oral versus aqueous) on the lead accumulation in different tissues of the fish host eel (Anguilla anguilla) and its parasites Anguillicola crassus (Nematoda) and Paratenuisentis ambiguus (Acanthocephala) was investigated. Waterborne as well as dietary lead exposure caused an increase in the metal levels of different eel tissues and the parasites. The mode of lead application had a significant influence on the distribution of lead in the fish tissues. No significant difference on the lead concentration due to water salinity was found for the fish tissues. Among the analyzed tissues and helminths, the intestinal acanthocephalan P. ambiguus contained the significantly highest amounts of lead, which were affected by neither the mode of application nor the water salinity. In contrast, the lead level of the nematode A. crassus dwelling in the swim bladder of eels was even below the levels detected for host liver, intestine, and bile. Thus, depending on the mode of lead application, the resulting metal concentrations were approximately 20 to 2,000 times higher in P. ambiguus than in A. crassus. These differences may be due to the different microhabitats and nutrient uptake mechanisms of both parasite species. This study presents important new facts for the use of intestinal fish parasites as biological indicators for water quality, not only in freshwater, but also in marine and estuarine ecosystems. The combination of the results obtained from the host and the parasites could reveal a more detailed tool to ascertain the source of an environmental contamination than a study based on a single species.
Bioaccumulation and Subchronic Physiological Effects of Waterborne Iron Overload on Whitefish Exposed in Humic and Nonhumic Water by J. Lappivaara; A. Kiviniemi; A. Oikari (pp. 196-204).
One-year-old whitefish, Coregonus lavaretus, were exposed to three types of iron-rich water, two dilutions for each, in a subchronic (30-day) experiment. In natural iron-rich humic water, both the bioaccumulation and physiological effects of iron exposure were negligible. In humic-free water with high amount of additional inorganic iron (nominally 8 mg Fe/L), Fe accumulated in gills, liver, and gut. This accumulation was accompanied by decreased glycogen phosphorylase activities and microsomal EROD activity in the liver as well as decreased plasma sodium and potassium concentrations. The third group of whitefish were exposed by adding inorganic iron (nominally 2 and 8 mg Fe/L) to natural iron-rich humic water. Fish exposed to the higher concentration of waterborne iron exhibited a physiological stress response as indicated by increased blood lactate and plasma cortisol concentrations. Additionally, plasma 17β-estradiol concentration was increased in fish kept in both water conditions with high amounts of additional iron. The observed dissimilarities in bioaccumulation and in physiological responses were not connected with the measured amounts of total or disolved iron in water, but to the amount of additional iron in tanks and to the different water conditions with or without organic matter. The dissimilarity of physiological responses, which was also shown by statistical classification through multivariate discriminant analysis, points to the necessity of variable and complementary physiological endpoints in describing the effects of similar kind of exposures.
Analyses of Tissues of Eight Marine Species from Atlantic and Pacific Coasts for Dioxin-Like Chlorobiphenyls (CBs) and Total CBs by G. M. Ylitalo; J. Buzitis; M. M. Krahn (pp. 205-219).
Eight commercially and recreationally important marine species were collected in 1993 and 1994 from several Atlantic and Pacific coastal regions of the contiguous United States. Approximately 700 edible tissue samples (e.g., whole body of mussel, crustacean muscle and hepatopancreas, and fish muscle) were analyzed for dioxin-like chlorobiphenyls (CBs) and other selected CB congeners using a rapid high-performance liquid chromatography photodiode array detection method (HPLC/PDA). Total CBs and toxic equivalents (TEQs) of dioxin-like CBs were also determined. The most abundant congeners measured in these tissues were the moderately chlorinated CBs (e.g., CB 138, 153), with mean concentrations ranging from below the limits of detection (approximately 0.2 ng/g) to 1,500 ng/g, wet weight. Certain dioxin-like CBs (e.g., CBs 77, 105, 118, 126) were also found in several of these samples (mean concentrations ranging from below the limits of detection [approximately 0.4 ng/g] to 680 ng/g). Similar to previous studies, the majority of seafood tissues contained total CB concentrations that were below the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) tolerance limit for CBs of 2,000 ng/g, wet weight (2.0 ppm). Furthermore, the majority of samples that contained CB levels below the FDA CB tolerance limit also had CB TEQs that were lower than the FDA's advisory level for TCDD (25 ppt or 25 pg/g, wet weight) in fish from the Great Lakes, which is used in evaluating CB TEQs. Several crustacean hepatopancreas samples collected from certain Atlantic and Pacific urban sites (e.g., Dungeness crab from Elliott Bay in Puget Sound, WA, American lobster from Deer Island in Boston Harbor, MA), however, did contain total CB and CB TEQs that exceeded the FDA CB tolerance and TCDD advisory limits. Mono-ortho- (e.g., CBs 118, 105) and non-ortho-substituted congeners (e.g., CBs 77 and 126) were the largest contributors to the CB TEQs of the hepatopancreas samples that exceeded the action limit.
Development and Application of a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Screening Method for Aromatic Compounds in Invertebrate Tissues by L. C. Hufnagle Jr.; S. E. Camarata; D. Ernest; C. A. Krone; S.-L. Chan; M. M. Krahn (pp. 220-226).
Contamination of marine invertebrates by aromatic compounds (ACs) can occur from a variety of environmental sources, both natural and anthropogenic. Invertebrate species bioaccumulate ACs because they metabolize and eliminate them at a much slower rate than do vertebrates, such as fish. We have developed a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) UV fluorescence screening method that measures ACs in invertebrate tissues. Screening methods have proven to be useful in response to environmental emergencies (e.g., oil spills) and in environmental monitoring because they are more rapid and less expensive than detailed analyses. This method was validated using three species of bivalves and lobster hepatopancreas and tail muscle as test samples. The AC screening method at naphthalene, phenanthrene, and benzo[a]pyrene wavelength pairs showed good correlation to GC/MS results. The method was also used successfully in response to the North Cape oil spill, off Narragansett, Rhode Island.
Developmental Effects of Urban Storm Water in Medaka (Oryzias latipes) and Inland Silverside (Menidia beryllina) by L. Skinner; A. de Peyster; K. Schiff (pp. 227-235).
Stormwater runoff in a coastal urban area (San Diego County, CA) produced significant toxicity to early life stages of medaka (Oryzias latipes) and Menidia (M. beryllina). Exposure of embryos to lower concentrations (5 to 25%) increased the incidence of abnormal swim bladder inflation and other teratogenic responses, whereas higher concentrations resulted in mortality or failure to hatch. Comparisons of EC50s for mortality and failure to hatch with concentrations of individual chemical pollutants (including Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn) revealed low correlations; however, the correlation with total metals was high (−0.84) and corresponded with sample exceedences of Water Quality Criteria (WQC) for Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn. This strong association between developmental toxicity and toxic metal content of storm water compared favorably with developmental anomalies reported in other studies. Analytical chemistry data for pesticides that may have been in these samples were limited to selected pesticides found usually below detection limits. Greater toxicity of the watershed effluents sampled was generally associated with more developed land surface and less open space. Both medaka and Menidia were found to be useful for studying effects of stormwater on embryonic and early larval development.
Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress and Genotoxicity in Livers of Field-Collected Brown Bullhead, Ameiurus nebulosus by V. A. McFarland; L. S. Inouye; C. H. Lutz; A. S. Jarvis; J. U. Clarke; D. D. McCant (pp. 236-241).
The objective of this investigation was to determine whether differences in a suite of biomarker assays in brown bullhead liver tissues could be detected and related to the pollution histories of two Ohio locations, one a reach of the Black River that had historically been severely impacted by the effluents of a coking plant, the other at Old Woman Creek, a freshwater estuarine research preserve. There were no gross differences in pathologies detectable in fish from either site, and the major difference found in bullheads at the two sites was in the relative liver weight (RLW). Differential responses of glutathione reductase, glutathione-S-transferase, Se-dependent glutathione peroxidase, Se-independent glutathione peroxidase, and oxidized glutathione have been reported between fish from contaminated and uncontaminated sites in other studies, but no such differences were observed in the present study. Of the oxidative stress biomarkers included in this investigation, only the responses of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and total glutathione appeared to correlate with environmental exposure of brown bullhead to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Results with single-strand DNA and ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase were the reverse of what has been reported in most other studies, and may reflect adaptation of the fish at the previously highly contaminated site. The fish at the Black River site appear to have responded to the xenobiotics present in their environment by increasing their overall liver size, thereby increasing the overall amount of enzymes rather than altering the specific activity of a select set of protective enzymes.
PCB and PAH Impacts on Cytochrome P-450–Dependent Oxidases in Roach (Rutilus rutilus) from the Seine River (France) by M. Blanchard; M. J. Teil; A. M. Carru; D. Ollivon; B. Garban; A. Chesterikoff; M. Chevreuil (pp. 242-250).
Roach were sampled in the Seine River along a gradient of polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations at three stations: Marnay upstream of Paris and Epinay and Poses downstream of Paris. Two hepatic monooxygenase activities: EROD (ethoxyresorufine-O-deethylase) and AE (aldrin epoxydase) and muscle residues of PCBs and PAHs were investigated during three periods of the year (before spawning, during spawning, and postspawning). Before spawning, EROD and AE activities were significantly correlated with muscle PCB levels (p ≤ 0.05 for both activities) and with muscle PAH levels (p ≤ 0.05 for both activities) at the three stations. Cd was not inversely related to monooxygenase activities. During spawning, enzymatic activities remained low and were not correlated to pollutant levels. Postspawning EROD and AE activities were again significantly related to muscle PCBs (p ≤ 0.05 for both activities). Thus, investigations of EROD and AE activities may be considered as a reliable tool for biomonitoring of PCB or PAH exposure, as far as appropriate conditions are observed.
Interaction Between Phenanthrene and Zinc in Their Toxicity to the Sheepshead Minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) by C. J. Moreau; P. L. Klerks; C. N. Haas (pp. 251-257).
Many contaminated sites contain a variety of toxicants. Risk assessment and the development of water quality criteria therefore require information on the interactive effects among toxicants in such mixtures. Interactions between metals are relatively well studied, but little is known about interactions between metals and hydrocarbons. This study investigated the interaction between phenanthrene and zinc in the sheepshead minnow Cyprinodon variegatus. Interaction studies were performed with 7-day-old minnows in 96-h bioassays with zinc and phenanthrene at a fixed ratio and with varying proportions of zinc and phenanthrene. Mixture toxicity was quantified with the toxic unit, additive index, and excess function methods. All three methods generally indicated an antagonistic interaction between phenanthrene and zinc, though the results also provide some evidence for a synergistic interaction at low toxicant levels or at specific phenanthrene-to-zinc ratios. Short-term uptake experiments were conducted to determine if the strong antagonistic interaction observed when zinc and phenanthrene were present at 50% of their LC50 values was due to effects of zinc and phenanthrene on each other's uptake. Significantly less 65Zn uptake occurred in the presence of phenanthrene than in its absence. In contrast, zinc did not appear to affect the uptake of 14C-phenanthrene.
Life-Cycle Toxicity of Bis(Tributyltin) Oxide to the Sheepshead Minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) by C. S. Manning; T. F. Lytle; W. W. Walker; J. S. Lytle (pp. 258-266).
The effects of tributyltin (TBT) to the life cycle of the estuarine fish Cyprinodon variegatus were examined in a 180-day flow-through exposure. The study was initiated with embryos less than 24 h postfertilization and monitored through hatch, maturation, growth, and reproduction under continuous exposure to mean measured TBT concentrations of 5.4, 3.2, 1.3, 0.66, and 0.41 μg TBT/L. Progeny isolated at the onset of reproduction by the parental generation (F0) were monitored for survival as embryos, survival as fry/juveniles, and growth 30 days postisolation. TBT, at a concentration of 5.4 μg/L, significantly reduced embryo survival of the F0 generation sheepshead minnows. By day 145 of the exposure, significant effects to the survival of this generation increased and included all test concentrations ≥0.66 μg/L. Survival of 0.66 μg/L was reduced 59% relative to control survival by termination of the F0 generation. Growth of F0 generation organisms as measured by standard length was significantly reduced only on day 90 at 3.2 μg/L, however no significant reductions of wet or dry weight related to treatment concentration were detected. Due to complete mortality of organisms exposed to 5.4 μg/L by study day 7, effects to fecundity and progeny were monitored at measured concentrations of 3.2, 1.3, 0.66, and 0.41 μg TBT/L. Fecundity, as measured by the production of viable eggs produced per female per day, was unaffected by any of the test treatments. All F1 generation embryos isolated from treatment chambers into 3.2 μg/L died. Survival, standard length, wet and dry weight of the F1 generation at the remaining treatment concentrations were unaffected. The results of this study indicate that exposure to TBT reduced survival of the F0 generation sheepshead minnow and establishes the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) as 0.66 μg TBT/L, and the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) as 0.41 μg TBT/L for this species.
Concentrations of Lead in Liver, Kidney, and Bone of Bald and Golden Eagles by M. Wayland; E. Neugebauer; T. Bollinger (pp. 267-272).
The diagnosis of lead poisoning in eagles relies on autopsy information and residue analysis of lead in certain tissues, usually liver or blood. Similarly, the assessment of elevated lead exposure in eagles depends on the determination of lead concentrations in these tissues. Renal and bone lead concentrations have rarely been examined in eagles. We examined relationships among hepatic, renal, and bone lead concentrations in bald and golden eagles from the Canadian prairie provinces. Hepatic and renal lead concentrations were strongly related (R2 = 0.87) while those in liver and bone were significantly but poorly related (R2 = 0.22). Renal lead concentrations of 5 and 18 μg · g−1 (dry weight) corresponded to hepatic lead concentrations of 6 and 30 μg · g−1, the hepatic concentrations that we used as criterion levels associated with elevated lead exposure and death from lead poisoning, respectively. Lead was elevated in 19 of 119 and 21 of 109 liver and kidney samples, respectively. Of these 19 and 21 liver and kidney samples, 14 and 11, respectively, had lead concentrations compatible with death from lead poisoning. Taken together, lead concentrations were elevated in liver or kidney samples from 25 eagles and were compatible with death from lead poisoning in 15. Mean bone lead was higher in eagles with elevated hepatic lead than in those exhibiting background hepatic lead concentrations. However, even in the former group, bone lead concentrations were lower than those in lead-exposed individuals of other species of birds. Bone is probably not a useful tissue for identifying elevated lead exposure in eagles. Three of eleven birds that had been shot had anomalous renal lead concentrations, suggestive of contamination by residue from lead ammunition. It is important to exclude such birds when assessing lead exposure.
Pesticide Deposition on Coveralls During Vineyard Applications by C. W. Coffman; S. K. Obendorf; R. C. Derksen (pp. 273-279).
Deposition of pesticide on the clothing of the applicator was studied in a commercial vineyard using two different application technologies. A typical air-assisted sprayer with centrifugal fans delivered a concentrated spray. A tunnel or hooded sprayer was used at two carrier rates—high volume, low concentration versus low volume, high concentration—to apply Dithane M-45, an agricultural fungicide, at 3,375 g/ha on a light to medium density canopy. Deposition of pesticide was on the coveralls worn by the operator for all applications with a deposition range of 0.43 to 0.63 ng/cm2. The deposition on the clothing was higher for the air-assist sprayer than for the hooded sprayer. However, reducing the volume of water in the non–air assist hooded sprayer offered no advantage in terms of decreasing operator exposure. While the deposition of pesticide on the coveralls of the applicator was fairly uniformly distributed on the garment surface, the neck, shoulder, and upper right arm of our right-handed operator had the highest amount of pesticide deposit and the lower left quadrant of the garment had the lowest deposition. Results of this study indicate that vineyard applicator exposure can be reduced by use of the hooded non–air assisted sprayer and that extra protection is needed in the region of the neck, shoulder, and arm, and attention to the habits of the tractor driver is required.